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Digital literacy is a critical competency in education across all levels, from primary to higher education. It includes skills such as technical proficiency, information evaluation, online collaboration, creativity and ethical technology use. This study conducts a Systematic Literature Review (SLR), following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, to ine types instruments used to assess students digital literacy, the competencies targeted and the methodological challenges in their development. A total of 23 peer-reviewed articles published between 2014 and 2024 were selected from Scopus, PubMed, Crossref and ERIC. This review shows that assessment instruments include Likert scale-based questionnaires, framework-aligned tools (DigComp and DQ Framework) and digital performance-based methods. These instruments are applied across diverse educational settings: primary, secondary, tertiary and adult education with varying emphases based on age and learning context. Whilst core competencies are addressed, several limitations persist, such as reliance on self-reporting, limited cross-cultural validation and lack of authentic performance assessment. This study highlights the need for more comprehensive, validated and context-sensitive instruments that integrate digital safety, ethics and practical digital skills. The findings offer insights for researchers, educators and policymakers to improve digital literacy measurement across education sectors.
Keywords: digital literacy; measurement instrument; digital competency
Introduction
Digital literacy is increasingly recognised as a vital skill for students in the modern era, as it supports access to diverse literacy practices, critical thinking and informed technology use (Momdjian et al., 2024; Newland & Handley, 2016; Yuan et al., 2019). It encompasses abilities such as information search, digital communication, content creation and ethical awareness (Herro, 2014; Shin, 2015), all of which are essential in todays technology-integrated classrooms (Churchill, 2020). In response, researchers have developed various assessment tools including questionnaires, skill-based tests and self-assessments to measure students' digital literacy (Choi et al., 2023; Mieg et al., 2023; Son & Ha, 2024). However, these instruments differ widely in focus, ranging from technical proficiency to critical thinking and online safety, and there is still no universally accepted standard, making it difficult to compare digital literacy outcomes across contexts (Afandi et al., 2024; Oh et al., 2021).
Recent international frameworks including selfie for teachers based on DigCompEdu (Economou et al., 2023), the DQ Framework that integrates technical, cognitive and socio-emotional competencies (DQ Institute, 2023; Park &...