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1. Introduction
The need for children to learn computer programming is recognised as a vital part of their education (Mannila & Heintz, 2023). There are many benefits of learning to program, including developing children's problemsolving skills (Fagerlund et al., 2021) and increasing their understanding of computing technology (e.g. (Alam, 2022). Across the globe, programming has been introduced within school curricula, including England (Department for Education, 2013), which is my study's areas of investigation. However, there have been many challenges to introducing this new curricular content (Royal Society, 2018). In particular, many teachers are unfamiliar with the subject having never studied it themselves. They therefore require support to develop their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), as posited by Shulman (1986). Teachers with well-developed PCK are able to promote effective learning within their subject, including during computing lessons (Nijenhuis-Voogt et al., 2023). Whilst empirical studies have attempted to define the PCK required to teach programming (e.g. Hubwieser et al., 2013; Saeli et al., 2011), the proposals are often secondary specific and lacking in empirical validation. A number of the pedagogical approaches used to teach programming to primary pupils can be disengaging (Socratous & Ioannou, 2021). Empirical studies have also highlighted how pupils can find programming concepts challenging to learn (Sentance et al., 2017; Yadav et al., 2016).
Commercial, off-the-shelf (COTS) video games, developed for entertainment purposes, such as Pac-Man and Frogger, have been identified by teachers as increasing pupils' motivation for learning when used as part of their lessons' instruction (e.g. Allsop et al., 2015; Wastiau et al., 2009). The use of video games forms an integral part of primary aged children's daily lives, with the Children's Commissioner of England (2024) recently outlining how their most common motivation for playing is "to have fun" (p. 7). Ryan et al.'s (2006) empirical studies have demonstrated how individuals experience pleasurable feelings, such as fun and enjoyment, when playing video games. Video games are therefore seen as intrinsically motivating for the player through the inherent satisfaction they provide. Self-determination theory (SDT) (Deci et al., 1985) posits this motivation is fostered through the fulfilment of an individual's basic psychological needs.
Few empirical studies have examined the use of COTS video games to support...