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ABSTRACT
This article explores the underlying and epiphenomenal manifestations of milieus and contexts that serve to control and undermine, or provide pathways to, the discussion of controversial issues in classrooms. Given the importance of teaching and discussing controversial issues, as an essential lever for democratic citizenship education, I draw on two empirical case studies in Korea and Latvia. These cases suggest a variety of implications for teacher education programs and education policy makers, both domestically and abroad, including the need for teachers to develop a clear rationale for teaching controversial issues; understand their role as mediator of the larger normative mandate of citizenship education in their school and the reality of their particular context; and reflect upon their pivotal role as curricularist, gatekeeper, and professional within context and, in some cases, change the epistemological cultures of their classrooms and schools to foster free expression of ideas within an open and inviting classroom climate.
INTRODUCTION
The primary objective of this article is to explore the underlying and epiphenomenal manifestations of milieus and context that serve to control and undermine, or provide pathways to, the discussion of controversial issues in classrooms. Controversial issues are integral to democratic education (Camicia, 2008; Engle, 1960; Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Graseck, 2009; Hahn, 1991; Harwood & Hahn, 1990; Hess, 2008; 2009; Hunt & Metcalf, 1968; Lee, 2004; Ochoa-Becker, 2007; Oliver & Shaver, 1966). Controversies constitute a normative anchor within citizenship education curriculum, and the degree to which controversial issues are subjected to reflection has profound implications for the vibrancy of a democracy. If we think of democracy not in terms of governmental structures but in Dewey's (1916) "mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience" (p. 87), citizenship is predicated on foundational ideas of free participation and communication.
Engaging controversial issues pays a democratic dividend for student-citizens by increasing civic participation, critical thinking skills, interpersonal skills, content understanding, and political activity. These judgments also elevate interest in current events, social studies, and social issues, and increase the development of tolerance. Students tend to develop democratic values such as open-mindedness, dissent, skepticism, and embracing diversity. (Curtis & Shaver, 1 980; Goldcnsen, 1 978; Harwood & Hahn, 1990; Hess & Ganzler, 2006; Hess & Posselt, 2002; Hess, 2009; Misco, 2010a, 201...