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About the Authors:
Matthew L. Farnsworth
* E-mail: [email protected]
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Service, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Ryan S. Miller
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Service, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Kerri Pedersen
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Mark W. Lutman
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Seth R. Swafford
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Wildlife Services, National Wildlife Disease Program, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Philip D. Riggs
Affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Veterinary Service, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Colleen T. Webb
Affiliation: Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, United States of America
Introduction
Type A avian influenza virus (AIV) in wild waterfowl constitutes an important reservoir and source of infection for humans [1], [2], [3] and domestic poultry [4], [5]. In the United States AIV remains a threat to the domestic poultry industry [4], [5], [6] with estimated losses ranging from 5 to 212 million United States dollars [6], [7]. In North America there have been seven high-pathogenic outbreaks in poultry since 1924 with Losses from a single outbreak in 2007 estimated at 643 million Canadian dollars [8]. Although high pathogenic outbreaks of AIV in the United States have been rare, periodic outbreaks of low pathogenic AIV continue to occur and pose a threat due to its potential to mutate to the high pathogenic form of the virus. Wild waterfowl are well documented hosts for AIV [9], [10], [11]; however, identification of specific mechanisms structuring environmental infection risk across landscapes remains elusive. Experimental studies have established relationships between water temperature and chemistry (e.g., pH and salinity) and AIV persistence [12], [13]. At least one experimental study has documented the role of...