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About the Authors:
Djordje Medan
Contributed equally to this work with: Djordje Medan, Sudjit Luanpitpong
Affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Sudjit Luanpitpong
Contributed equally to this work with: Djordje Medan, Sudjit Luanpitpong
Affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Neelam Azad
Affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hampton University, Hampton, Virginia, United States of America
Liying Wang
Affiliation: Pathology and Physiology Research Branch, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Bing-Hua Jiang
Affiliation: Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
Mary E. Davis
Affiliation: Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
John B. Barnett
Affiliation: Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Cell Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Lan Guo
Affiliation: Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Yon Rojanasakul
* E-mail: [email protected]
Affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia, United States of America
Introduction
Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality worldwide. While the etiology of lung cancer caused by various agents including cigarette smoke, air pollution, and heavy metals has been established [1], [2], the underlying mechanisms of tumorigenesis are not well understood. Current research indicates that long-term exposure to inhaled carcinogens has the greatest impact on the risk of lung cancer. Cr(VI)-containing compounds are ubiquitous carcinogens associated with the incidence of lung cancer in humans. Several epidemiological studies in the last few decades have associated exposure to Cr(VI) with the induction of lung cancer in workers in various occupational settings [3]–[6]. Cr(VI) compounds are also present in cigarette smoke, automobile emissions, and are widespread in the environment, e.g., Cr(VI)-contaminated water [7], [8]. In the United States, an air quality survey indicated that people in several residential areas are exposed to particulate airborne chromium at concentrations exceeding 100 times the chronic toxicity benchmark, which set at 0.016 mg/m3 from the critical study used as the basis for Environmental Protection Agency's reference concentration for Cr(VI) particulates [9], [10]. Therefore, in addition to occupational exposure, environmental...