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Hum Nat (2013) 24:158181
DOI 10.1007/s12110-013-9164-1
Witchcraft Beliefs and Witch Hunts
An Interdisciplinary Explanation
Niek Koning
Published online: 7 May 2013# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2013
Abstract This paper proposes an interdisciplinary explanation of the cross-cultural similarities and evolutionary patterns of witchcraft beliefs. It argues that human social dilemmas have led to the evolution of a fear system that is sensitive to signs of deceit and envy. This was adapted in the evolutionary environment of small foraging bands but became overstimulated by the consequences of the Agricultural Revolution, leading to witch paranoia. State formation, civilization, and economic development abated the fear of witches and replaced it in part with more collectivist forms of social paranoia. However, demographic-economic crises could rekindle fear of witchesresulting, for example, in the witch craze of early modern Europe. The Industrial Revolution broke the Malthusian shackles, but modern economic growth requires agricultural development as a starting point. In sub-Saharan Africa, witch paranoia has resurged because the conditions for agricultural development are lacking, leading to fighting for opportunities and an erosion of intergenerational reciprocity.
Keywords Witchcraft . Collective paranoia . Evolutionary discordance . Economic development . Malthusian cycles . African crisis
In many parts of the world, people believedor still believein the existence of malevolent individuals with occult powers. Although they live among us, witches are linked to an immoral anti-world, and their insatiable greed and envy is thought to threaten the reproduction of the community (Parry and Bloch 1989; Rowland 1990).
Although these beliefs pertain to different traditions and exhibit context-specific particularities (Hallen and Sodipo 1997), they show basic cross-cultural similarities. Witches are commonly believed to have special powers in the eyes or mouth,1 are able to turn themselves into animals or have magic familiars, move at high speed at night, eat other humans, and gather in secret conventions (Behringer 2004; Mair 1969). There
1For the cross-cultural nature of belief in the evil eye, see Roberts 1976. For the role of the mouth, see Maloney 1976 for South Asia, Flores-Meiser 1976 for the Philippines, or de Pina-Cabral 1986 for Portugal.
N. Koning (*)
Department of Social Sciences, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, The Netherlandse-mail: [email protected]
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is also a widespread distinction between manipulation...