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Introduction
In an increasingly complex, knowledge-based and turbulent economy, the competitive advantages of more and more organizations depend on effective knowledge management. To gain and sustain competitive advantages, organizations need to develop systematic processes to create and leverage knowledge. One of the main tasks in knowledge management is taking steps to stop individuals hiding knowledge and letting them share their knowledge or information within their organizations.
However, much attention has been paid to why and when people share their knowledge, while very little attention has been devoted to why and when people hide their knowledge. People usually assume knowledge hiding or withholding is the opposite of knowledge sharing. A number of factors that contribute to knowledge sharing have been identified ([66] Wang and Noe, 2010), including the influence of organizational culture (e.g. [20] Davenport et al. , 1998), management support (e.g. [35] King and Marks, 2008), rewards and incentives (e.g. [68] Yao et al. , 2007), and interpersonal trust (e.g. [1] Abrams et al. , 2003). However, few studies have investigated the determinants of knowledge withholding or knowledge hiding.
Organizations also have taken many actions to facilitate knowledge sharing, but the effects cannot meet or surpass management's expectation ([6] Babcock, 2004). Knowledge hiding is still prevalent in work settings today. It is reported that Fortune 500 companies lose at least $31.5bn a year by failing to share knowledge ([6] Babcock, 2004). In a recent survey conducted in the USA, 76 percent of respondents admitted they once hid knowledge (cf. [16] Connelly et al. , 2012). Similarly, 46 percent of respondents reported they once conducted knowledge hiding in work settings in a survey from China ([45] Peng, 2012).
Building on the above facts, researchers have recently begun to propose that knowledge hiding and knowledge sharing are not the opposite ends of a continuum, but are two distinct constructs ([16] Connelly et al. , 2012; [26] Ford and Staples, 2010). The two constructs may have very different antecedents. Even though they may have similar behavioral manifestations, the underlying motivation and mechanisms are strikingly different ([16] Connelly et al. , 2012). Field observations also show that employees may conduct knowledge sharing and knowledge hiding simultaneously ([25] Ford and Staples, 2008). They may share with colleagues some knowledge...