Influence of Supervisor Support on Job Satisfaction Levels: An Evaluation of Turkish National Police (TNP) Officers in the Istanbul Police Department

Abstract

The present study examines whether, and to what degree, supervisor support in law enforcement is associated with job satisfaction, holding the effects of age, rank, education, gender, and working unit as constant in the analysis. A total of 216 Turkish National Police (TNP) employees working in Istanbul Police Department, comprising 185 regular police officers and 31 ranked police officers, completed the study survey. The influence of supervisor support on the job satisfaction levels of TNP employees was analyzed by structural equation modeling (SEM) under the theoretical framework of Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory. The results of the study indicate that TNP employees' perceived supervisor support has a statistically significant positive effect on their job satisfaction levels. The more TNP employees perceive their supervisors as supportive, the higher their job satisfaction levels. Among the five demographic variables, only working unit of TNP employees makes statistically significant contribution to their job satisfaction levels. The predictor variable of supervisor support along with working unit collectively, explain 45 % of the total variation in job satisfaction.

Headnote

Abstract

The present study examines whether, and to what degree, supervisor support in law enforcement is associated with job satisfaction, holding the effects of age, rank, education, gender, and working unit as constant in the analysis. A total of 216 Turkish National Police (TNP) employees working in Istanbul Police Department, comprising 185 regular police officers and 31 ranked police officers, completed the study survey. The influence of supervisor support on the job satisfaction levels of TNP employees was analyzed by structural equation modeling (SEM) under the theoretical framework of Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory. The results of the study indicate that TNP employees' perceived supervisor support has a statistically significant positive effect on their job satisfaction levels. The more TNP employees perceive their supervisors as supportive, the higher their job satisfaction levels. Among the five demographic variables, only working unit of TNP employees makes statistically significant contribution to their job satisfaction levels. The predictor variable of supervisor support along with working unit collectively, explain 45 % of the total variation in job satisfaction.

Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Supervisor Support, Working Unit, SEM, Turkish National Police.

Introduction

It has been accepted that people working in occupations where they are expected to deal with the problems of others, such as health care, teaching, and especially law enforcement, may suffer more stress than people do in other professions (Finn & Tomz, 1998).

Several studies of law enforcement stress have found that work-related factors are the main source of stress for law enforcement personnel, stress that is directly related to their psychological, emotional, and physiological well-being (Harpold & Feemaster, 2002). Decline in job satisfaction, increased family problems, substance and alcohol addiction and reduced performance are among the notable consequences of occupational stress (Ivanhoff, 1994; Violanti, 1997).

In the current environment including pockets of international terrorism, police officers perform their duty in the face of high demand and increasing at-risk situations. Gershon (2000) concur that working under continuously stressful conditions leads to the dissatisfaction and exhaustion of police officers. The stressful conditions that law enforcement officers are exposed can affect both their work-related and their physiological wellbeing. Ortega et al. (2007) point out that police officers work in a unique environment, subjecting themselves to potentially traumatic events in conditions that impact their emotional and physical well-being.

There is a strong positive relationship between individual performance and organizational performance: the higher the well-being of the officers, the higher the overall agency performance (Brough & Williams, 2007). Law enforcement managers must be aware that the success of any law enforcement agency depends on the well-being of its members. It is thus important for law enforcement agencies to devote significant time to understanding the factors within the organization and how they affect the employees.

The purpose of the study is to understand the direction of the relationships, if any, among supervisor support, job satisfaction of law enforcement officers in the Turkish National Police (TNP). More specifically, the study investigates how the supervisor support reported by law enforcement officers may affect their job satisfaction levels. Identifying the effects of supervisor support to the job satisfaction levels of officers provides an opportunity for police managers to shape organizational culture positively and adopt operational policies that improve organizational performance.

Review of Literature

Job satisfaction in human service occupations such as law enforcement has both extrinsic and intrinsic aspects. The extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction are considered to be the salary and promotion provided by the organization. The intrinsic aspects are work with citizens and colleagues, educational opportunities, organizational support, personal needs of recognition and accomplishment, and social support (Koeske et al., 1994; Davis, 1996).

The concept of job satisfaction is generally defined as one's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to a job as a result of evaluation of job features and job-related events (Locke, 1976).

One of the most comprehensive definitions of job satisfaction is made by Spector (1997). Spector (1997) defined job satisfaction as "How people feel about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs" (p. 2). He also states that job satisfaction has nine aspects: pay, promotion, supervision, benefits provided, contingent rewards as a means of recognition and appreciation, operating procedures and policies, dealing with coworkers, nature of the work, and communication within the organization (Spector, 1997).

Koeske et al. (1994) note some extrinsic aspects of job satisfaction: salary and promotion provided by the organization, the intrinsic aspects include work with citizens and colleagues, educational opportunities, organizational support, personal needs for recognition and accomplishment, and social support.

Buitendach and De Witte (2005) describe job satisfaction as an affective or emotional reaction to a job as a result of the comparison the actual outcomes with the required outcomes. Job satisfaction is experienced if employees feel that their individual capacities and values can be utilized in the work environment and the opportunities and rewards are offered in work environment.

Violanti and Aron (1994) found a strong and positive relationship between high level of job satisfaction and the psychological well-being of police officers. Job satisfaction is considered as one of the strongest predictors of a valued organizational outcome and commitment (Jaramillo et al., 2005).

Social support is defined as an informal social network of interpersonal transactions providing practical assistance and information along with emotional concern. Two important sources of social support are supervisors and colleagues (Etzion, 1984). A direct negative association is found between social supports and such threats to valued organizational outcomes as absenteeism, turnover, and job dissatisfaction (Perrewe & Carlson, 2002).

Social support has been found to be both directly and indirectly related to increased well-being (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Workplace support improves employee wellbeing by reducing work-related adverse outcomes such as job dissatisfaction and worsened mental health (Moyle, 1998). Carlan (2007) states that one of the main reasons for work-related dissatisfaction that is mentioned by law enforcement officers is stress directly related to the organizational characteristics of workplace.

In quasi-military organizational structure where top managers dominate the managerial relations and do not support to subordinates, their job dissatisfaction is an inevitable result (Pursley, 1974). Supervisors in charge of enforcing the practices and rules of the organization with subordinates are seen as important figures in the organization, since they have some flexibility in reflecting policies and practices to personnel (Ellison, 2004). Employees in the same law enforcement agencies but different departments can perceive the same rules and procedures differently because of the management styles of their supervisors. Schwabe et al. (2001) concluded that creating a law enforcement workplace where employees can interact with each other in a more cohesive way is directly related to their stress levels, meaning that in such environment employees experience less stress regardless of how many criminal activities they must handle.

Earlier research (Eisenberger et al., 1986) identified the supervisor's attitudes towards subordinates are indicators of organizational support because a supervisor, as an agent of the organization, has discretion and responsibility for managing and assessing subordinates' performance. Characteristics of supervisor support are showing tolerance for employees who have difficulties with tasks, giving credit for jobs well done, and providing incentives for employees to perform better. Even listening to employees' complaints about workplace stress is an important step for supervisors to mitigate employees' stress, although that does not change anything; it makes them feel better (Wicks, 2005).

The quality of workplace social support as perceived by employees is strongly related to burnout, (Brown & O'Brien, 1998) and to job satisfaction (Eisenberger et al., 1997). According to a study conducted by Pienaar, Sieberbagen and Mostert (2007), social support coming from the supervisor was found to be strongly related to job satisfaction.

One of the most important predictors of job satisfaction is support provided by the organization according to the results of many studies related to the antecedents of job satisfaction (Rhodes & Eisenberger, 2002; Stamper & Johlke, 2003). Supervisor supporting coworker was found to have a positive impact on job satisfaction (LaRocco & Jones, 1978). Many research findings reveal that the lack of management or supervisory support leads to increase in job stress and decrease satisfaction (Jaramillo et al., 2005; Toch, 2002). Ganster et al. (1996) found that supervisor's role within the organization and officer's autonomy over tasks, decisions, and resources have direct impact on employees' physical and emotional well-being.

Gender, age, working experience in the department, rank, and assignment type are the common demographic variables in most studies of police stress (Violanti & Aron, 1995; Newman & Rucker-Reed, 2004). Zhao et al. (1999) cited as representative individual level variables that are associated with burnout and reduced job satisfaction: service years, gender, and shift work. British researchers (Johnson et al., 2005 as cited in Martinuessen et al., 2007) found that as age rises, officers experience higher levels of job satisfaction and less stress.

Theoretical Framework and Research Hypothesis

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory (also known as Motivator Hygiene Theory) is a theoretical framework of this study. He developed this theory to explain satisfaction and motivation of the employees in the workplace. This theory states that satisfaction in the workplace is driven by motivation and hygiene factors. Motivation is considered an inner force that drives employees to attain personal and organizational goals. Motivating factors are considered to be intrinsic to the job, or the work carried out. Hygiene factors are all related to aspects of the working environment such as supervisory practices, working conditions, and organization policies.

Frederick Herzberg describes the motivating factors as the six important job content factors that include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, and possibility of growth. On the other hand, he explains the hygiene factors as the job context factors including supervision, company policy, relationship with supervision, work conditions, relationship with colleagues, salary, personal life, relationship with subordinates, status within the organization, and job security perceived (Ruthankoon & Ogunlano, 2003).

Based on the Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory assumptions, conceptually sound and theoretically relevant model of the study is developed to evaluate the effects of supervisor support on the job satisfaction levels of TNP employees.

In the light of empirical findings from the literature and the theoretical framework above, the following hypothesis is developed to test the structural relationship between supervisor support and job satisfaction

H: Turkish National Police (TNP) employees' self-reported supervisor support level is positively associated with their job satisfaction levels.

Methodology

Sampling

The unit of analysis of this study is the individual active police officer in the city of Istanbul. Currently, the Istanbul Police Department has about 40,000 active members. Sampling includes consideration of the TNP as the only national police organization in Turkey in which members are randomly appointed on a rotating basis to 81 cities of Turkey for specific periods of time. Istanbul is the biggest city of Turkey with a population of more than 15 million. The survey was sent to 516 active police officers in Istanbul. Web-based survey was used to collect the data. Advantages of internet surveys include having no time limitations for participants' access of the survey (Birnbaum, 2004) and its convenient nature for data coding and entry (Bartlett, 2005). The samples were randomly selected from Department of Personnel lists, using a stratified random sampling method. The personnel lists contain complete contact information on all active police officers from which the study sample is derived.

Survey Instrument

The questionnaire consists of three sections, beginning with measurement of the perceptions of Turkish National Police (TNP) members working in Istanbul Police Department about the job satisfaction.

This study used the Job Satisfaction Survey developed by Spector (1985) to measure the TNP employees' perceptions of job satisfaction. The reasons why the Job Satisfaction Survey was chosen were that its applicability to a broad range of occupations (Blood et al., 2002), and it's having high acceptable reliability across countries (Schmidt, 2007).

For this study, one item from each subscale of the Job Satisfaction Survey (Pay, Supervisor, Contingent Rewards, Coworker, Communication, Benefits, Nature of Work, Operating Procedures and promotion opportunities) was used. Participants were asked to indicate to what extent they are satisfied with each item, by using a five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree."

The second section of the study contains the measurement of the supervisor support variable. Karasek's Job Content Survey (Karasek, 1985) modified by Baruch-Feldman et al. (2002) was used to measure the participants' agreement or disagreement with each item on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree."

The third section of this study includes the demographic variables of age, gender, rank, educational level, and working unit. The age of the police officers is clustered into five categories: 25 years old or younger, 26-30 years old, 31-35 years old, 36-40 years old, and 41 years old or older. The highest educational degree that participants had completed was asked by using five categories: high school, two-year college, Bachelor of Arts/Science, Master of Arts/Science, and Ph.D. Officer rank was measured on a five-point Likert scale that ranges from police officer to Major or higher. Gender was categorized as male or female. The working unit was categorized as dichotomy; operational and non-operational units. Participants were asked to indicate whether they were working at operational units or non-operational units.

Statistical Methods

Statistical analysis of the study was conducted in three main parts: descriptive analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM).

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), a powerful statistical tool to validate measurement models for the latent constructs (Wan 2002), was used to develop and validate the measurement model for the latent variables of the study; the supervisor support and the job satisfaction. Since latent variables cannot be directly observed and measured, measurement models are developed for each latent variable using multiple observable indicators (Byrne, 2006).

The third section of statistical analysis is Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), a statistical process that assesses how well the collected sample data fit to the theoretically driven developed model. Unlike other statistical analyses, using SEM in data analysis has the strength to extract measurement error from estimates of observed variables, which provides more accuracy in estimating the strength and degree of relationship (Byrne, 2001).

SEM of this study consists of measurement models of job satisfaction, supervisor support and the control variables of age, gender, rank, educational level, and working unit to investigate the structural relationship between them.

Reliability of the measurement is one of the most important requirements for any survey instrument and in that respect the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient score is one of the most widely used criteria for assessing instruments that contain ordinal data. Cronbach's Alpha score evaluates the extent to which a measurement produces consistent results at different times (Cronbach, 1951). Kline (2005) states as a general rule of thumb that Cronbach's score greater than 0.70 indicates that a latent variable has adequate internal consistency. Therefore, a minimum level of 0.70 is used as the criteria for the reliability analysis for this study.

The goodness of fit test in SEM determines whether or not the model, developed based on theoretical assumptions, should be accepted. Model acceptance makes the interpretations of the path coefficients meaningful (Garson, 2009).

Schermelleh-Engel et al. (2003), and Garson (2009) states that there is no consensus about which goodness of fit indexes should be considered for model evaluation, yet reporting all of the indexes should be avoided since that indicates the researcher is on a fishing expedition. Schermelleh-Engel et al. (2003) recommend following goodness of fit criteria, which are generally cited by many scholars for model evaluation, stating:

The following criteria form an adequate selection of indices which are frequently presented in current publications: χ2 and its associated p value, χ2/df, RMSEA and its associated confidence interval, SRMR, NNFI, and CFI. The fit indices RMSEA, NNFI and CFI are sensitive to model misspecifications and do not depend on sample size as strongly as χ2 (Fan, Thompson, & Wang, 1999; Hu & Bentler, 1998; Rigdon, 1996), therefore they should always be considered (p. 51).

The table 1 provides the information about goodness of fit indexes selected for this study and their cut-off values for model evaluation.

Results

From the initial estimate of 516 TNP employees working in Istanbul Police Department, a total of 232 people responded to the questionnaire. The final dataset of the study comprised 216 responses after omitting the 16 participant responses who had not completed the majority of the questions.

The table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the selected control variables.

Valid inferences about a larger population of study interest can be drawn only from a survey instrument that established reliability statistics tests have shown to be reliable. Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient was computed for latent constructs of the study; job satisfaction and supervisor support. The Cronbach's alpha Coefficients were found .889 and .874 for supervisor support and job satisfaction respectively, both of them greatly surpass the minimum recommended level of .70, indicating that these measurement scales have high internal consistency.

Goodness-of-fit statistics for both the generic and the revised models are displayed in the table 3.

SEM technique was used to explore the relationships among the latent constructs, including supervisor support and job satisfaction after validating these constructs through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by using Wan's three-stage approach (2002). Five control variables: education, age, gender, working unit, and rank were added to the generic model to test the effects of these variables on the endogenous latent variables, since they might account for the variation.

The generic structural equation model is presented in Figure 1.

Wan's three-stage approach (2002) was used for validating the generic hypothesized structural equation model. To check the indicators' appropriateness, the critical ratio of standardized regression weight of each indicator and structural path between variables was assessed in the first step to understand whether there were insignificant indicators or paths. On the basis of these criteria, four control variables: education, age, gender, and rank were excluded from the generic model, since the hypothesized relationships from these variables to endogenous variables failed to demonstrate significance at p ≤ .05. Only the control variable of unit was retained in the model, since the structural path from unit to the endogenous variable, job satisfaction demonstrated significance relationships at p ≤ .05 with regression coefficient value of .21.The hypothesized relationship between supervisor and job satisfaction was found to be statistically insignificant at p ≤ .05 with a corresponding regression coefficient value of. 61.

In the second stage of CFA, after removing insignificant variables from the generic model, overall model fit was evaluated to understand how well our measurement models fit the data. Goodness of fit statistics selected was used to evaluate whether or not the measurement model fit the data. The goodness-of-fit statistics then showed that the revised structural model demonstrated a reasonable fit to the data, but still indicating need to correlate pairs of measurement errors between indicators to achieve better results. Then, third stage of SEM was conducted to identify the possible sources of the lack of it by looking at the modification indices, indicating the extent to which the value of chi-square decreases when the pair of error terms is correlated. Pairs of error terms yielding the largest improvement in the model were selected for the model. The revised structural equation model is presented in Figure 2.

As seen in Table 3, the goodness-of-fit measures indicate a good model fit to the data for the revised structural equation model. Substantial improvement was achieved for the TLI and CFI scores of the revised model compared to generic model. While TLI scores increased from .884 to .957, the CFI value rose to .965 from .845, both of them indicate good model fit. Hoelter index value of 173 (compared to 127 in the generic model) in the revised model demonstrates that the revised model has acceptable sample size at the determined threshold level. Even though the RMSEA score (.068) was within the acceptable limits for generic model, a RMSEA score of .050 was achieved in the revised model after the revision, indicating good model fit to the established criteria of .50. While SRMR value of .090 in the generic model was within acceptable limits, the SRMR value of .056 in the revised model is very close to good model fit criteria. As a result, the data showed that the revised structural model has a reasonably good model fit.

Significant and positive association was detected between supervisor support and job satisfaction (β= 0.63, p < 0.05). This result demonstrates that as supervisor support increase within the organization, job satisfaction levels of employees also increase. Of the five control variables selected for this study, only working unit variable have positive and significant association with the endogenous variable of job satisfaction at p ≤ .05 (β=.23). The percentage of variation in the job satisfaction variable that is explained by the variables of supervisor support and working unit is 45 %.

The hypothesis of the study is supported by the study findings. This result means that the TNP members who perceive their supervisors as supportive are more likely to express high levels of job satisfaction. Another important finding of the study is that whether TNP employees are working in operational or non-operational units has a significant impact on their job satisfaction levels. Those who are working in operational units are more likely to express high levels of job satisfaction compared to their counterparts working in nonoperational units.

Discussion and Conclusion

Based on the finding that supervisor support has a significant and positive impact on the job satisfaction levels of law enforcement employees, it is very important to support law enforcement employees by their supervisors not only to increase their work-related wellbeing, but also to improve the organizational performance. The finding of the study is supported by the arguments raised by Perrewe and Carlson (2002), Toch (2002), Cohen and Wills (1985), Jaramillo et al. (2005), Pienaar, Sieberbagen and Mostert (2007).

Since supervisors are seen as important figures in the organization who are responsible for enforcing the practices and rules of the organization (Ellison, 2004), the finding that supervisor support has a significant and positive impact on the job satisfaction levels of law enforcement employees is parallel with what Carlan's (2007) argument indicating that work-related dissatisfaction of law enforcement officers is related to the organizational characteristics of workplace.

Like many police organizations, TNP is a highly centralized and hierarchical organization whose members are expected to behave according to prescribed rules and regulations without questioning them. Especially in operational units and police stations, managers of TNP rarely consider their employees' views when they make decisions affecting them. As cited by Shane (2008), to improve police performance, the rigid hierarchical structure of law enforcement organizations must be changed by fostering organizational democracy. Officers should be given more decision-making authority and increased responsibility. Police managers should act in such a way that subordinates have more voice in decisions, especially those affecting them.

Providing constructive feedback to their employees about their performance is also a vital step for supervisors. Giving the employees more decision-making authority, increased responsibility, and constructive feedback definitely raises their self-esteem, commitment and dedication to the organization and that in turn increases both the well-being of TNP members and organizational performance.

The findings of the study provide support for the utility of Herzberg's (1968) two-factor theory in explanations of job satisfaction. Research findings indicate that rather than demographic variables such as education, rank, gender, and age, the organizational factor of supervisor support is strongly correlated with officer job satisfaction with the exception of working unit. Like other law enforcement organizations, TNP officials could reassess their organizational attribute of managerial styles and significant time should be devoted to management courses. These efforts should make police supervisors more approachable and friendlier to their subordinates.

Job satisfaction is not a unitary concept, rather a complex and important concept which law enforcement managers have to understand. Most employees do not believe their work is being properly rewarded. The finding of the study revealed that officers who perceive their jobs as being of a more challenging (operational units) are significantly more satisfied than officers who see their jobs as being more simplistic (non-operational units). Despite the fact that they are working under heavy work load, those who are working in operational units are more satisfied since there are many factors indicating that their work or performance are properly rewarded. The result is supportive of a recent study by Nalla et al. (2011).

The finding of this study is parallel with the assumptions of the discrepancy theory since this theory suggests that satisfaction is the function of what an employees actually receive from his job and what they think they should receive or what they expect to receive. In other words, job satisfaction is occurred when employees' wants from their job are met by the job offerings. Since employees' wants are met to a large extent by the offerings of operational unit, those who are working in operational units express more satisfaction than their counterparts working in unoperational units.

The job characteristics model, developed by Hackman and Oldham in1975, argues that five core dimensions of job characteristics lead to satisfied and productive employees (Robin & Rhodes, 1999). These five core dimensions are; skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and task feedback. Task significance is defined as the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives of other people.

Employees working in operational units such as anti-terrorism, anti-smuggling, intelligence express high level of job satisfaction because of the fact that what they are doing has really a substantial impact on the lives of other people to a large extent. As stated by Koeske et al. (1994), personal needs for recognition and accomplishment is one of the important intrinsic aspects of satisfaction, personal needs and expectations are accomplished in operational units, which in turn results in high level of job satisfaction.

In their study, Abdulla et al. (2011) examine the effects of environmental and demographic factors on job satisfaction and they found environmental factors including promotion, supervision, and salary as better predictors of job satisfaction than demographic predictors such as sex, age and education level and years of experience. This study also revealed the same result since only working unit was found to have positive and significant association with the endogenous variable of job satisfaction. Rank, education, gender, and age were not found to be significantly related to the job satisfaction levels of law enforcement officers, but supervisor support and working unit.

The findings of this study can be cautiously replicated in different organizational settings of police to see the influence of supervisor support on job satisfaction levels. In the literature, there is an extensive discussion about the police culture in the world. Earlier police culture studies see police culture as monolithic occupational culture that is shared by all police officers (Crank, 1998). Even some scholars argue that police culture is same everywhere in the world and police forces in different countries have similar cultural understandings (Crank, 1998; Skolnick & Fyfe, 1993). These studies focused on finding common underlying features of occupational police culture and the reasons for shared cultural understanding among police officers. However, recent studies in the police culture state that instead of a monolithic police culture, there are several police subcultures in police departments (Chan, 1997; Foster, 2003; Paoline, 2001; Paoline, Myers, & Worden, 2000; Sheptycki, 1998; Waddington, 1999; Wood, Davis, & Rousa, 2004). These studies argue that the idea of singular police culture is superficial to explain the differences within and between police departments besides similarities in the police cultures. Although there are some similarities and common sharing among police officers, there are significant differences in the police culture. Therefore, researchers should keep in mind this discussion if they plan to replicate this study.

This study uses a self-report survey as the primary data source, which limit the study to the quantitative method. One of the important drawbacks of quantitative research is that nuances of why and how supervisor support affects the sample population cannot be observed. With the findings of the present study accepted as the starting point, other qualitative or mixed methods and sources such as, interviews and observations could be used by future researchers to address this topic in greater depth.

In addition to predictor variables of age, gender, education level, rank, and working unit, future research could address whether or not other important predictors effect the perceptions of law enforcement officers related to their work-related wellbeing.

With its significant finding the present study provides strong support to the argument that supervisor support is one of the important predictors in policing for the work-related wellbeing of police officers. Thus, this study presents directions to help law enforcement managers understand the impacts of supervisor support in depth and develop policies and programs to increase the wellbeing of TNP employees.

References

References

Jassem, A., Ramdane, D., & Kamel, M. (2011). Determinants of job satisfaction in the UAE: A case study of the Dubai police. Personnel Review, 40(1), 126 - 146.

Bartlett, K. R. (2005). Survey Research in Organizations. In R.A. Swanson & E.F. Holton (Eds.), Research in Organizations: Foundations and Methods of Inquiry (pp. 97113). San Francisco: Barett-Koehler.

Baruch-Feldman, C., Brondolo, E., Ben-Dayan, D., & Schwartz, J. (2002). Sources of social support and burnout, job satisfaction, and productivity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(1), 84-93.

Birnbaum, M. H. (2004). Human research and data collection via the internet. Annu. Rev. Psychol, 55(1), 803-832.

Blood, G. W., Ridenour, J. S., Thomas, E. A., Qualls, C. D., & Hammer, C. S. (2002). Predicting job satisfaction among speech-language pathologists working in public schools. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 33(4), 282-290.

Brough, P., & Williams, J. (2007). Managing occupational stress in a high-risk industry. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34(4), 555-567.

Brown, C., & O'Brien, K. M. (1998). Understanding stress and burnout in shelter workers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 29(4), 383-385.

Buitendach, J. H., & De Witte, H. (2005). Job insecurity, extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction and affective organisational commitment of maintenance workers in a parastatal. South African Journal of Business Management, 36(2), 27-37.

Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Byrne, B. M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Carlan, P. E. (2007). The search for job satisfaction: A survey of Alabama policing. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(1), 74-86.

Chan, J., (1997). Changing Police Culture: Policing in a Multicultural Society. Cambridge. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 310-357.

Crank, J. P., (1998). Understanding Police Culture, Cincinnati: Anderson Publishing Co.

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3), 297-334.

Davis, A. J. (1996). A re-analysis of the occupational stress indicator. Work and Stress, 10(2), 174-182.

Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., & Sowa, D. (1986). Perceived organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(3), 500-507.

Ellison, K. (2004). Stress and the Police Officer. New York: Charles C. Thomas, Ltd.

Etzion, D. (1984). Moderating effect of social support on the stress-burnout relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(4), 615-622.

Finn, P., & Tomz, J. E. (1998). Developing a Law Enforcement Stress Program for Officers and Their Families. New York: Harper.

Foster, J. (2003). Police Cultures. T. Newburn, (Ed.), The handbook of Policing (pp. 196227). London: Willan Publishing.

Ganster, D. C, Milan, P., & Duffy, M. (1996). Organizational and Interpersonal Sources of Stress in the Slovenian Police Force. In: P. Milan (ed.), Policing in Central and Eastern Europe: Comparing Firsthand Knowledge with Experience from the West. Ljubljana, Slovenia: College of Police and Security Studies. Retrieved on 5th October 2014 from https://www.ncjrs.gov/policing/org425.htm.

Garson, G. D. (2009). Structural Equation Modeling. Retrieved on 5th October 2014 from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/structur.htm.

Gershon, R. (2000). National Institute of Justice final report: "Project SHIELDS". Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

Harpold, J. A., & Feemster, S. L. (2002). Negative Influences of Police Stress. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 71(9), 1-6.

Ivanoff, A. (1994). The New York City Police Suicide Training Project. New York: Police Foundation.

Jaramillo F, Nixon, R., & Sams, D. (2005). The effects of law enforcement stress on organizational commitment. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 28(2), 321-336.

Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Donald, I., Taylor, P., & Millet, C. (2005). The experience of work-related stress across occupations. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 20(2), 178-187.

Karasek, R. A. (1985). Job Content Questionnaire and User's Guide. University of Massachusetts at Lowell, Lowell.

Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Koeske, G. F., Kirk, S. A., Koeske, R. D., & Rauktis, M. D. (1994). Measuring the Monday Blues: Validation of Job Satisfaction Scale for the Human Service. Social Work Research, 18, 27-35.

LaRocco, J. M., & Jones, A. P. (1978). Co-Worker and Leader Support as Moderators of Stress-Strain Relationships in Work Situations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(5), 629-634.

Locke, E. A. (1976). The Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1, 1297-1343.

Martinussen, M., Richardsen, A., & Burke, R. (2007). Job Demands, Job Resources, and Burnout among Police Officers. Journal of Criminal Justice, 35(3), 239-249.

Moyle, P. (1998). Longitudinal Influences of Managerial Support on Employee WellBeing. Work and Stress, 12(1), 29-49.

Nalla, M. K., Rydberg, J., Mesko, G. (2011). Organizational Factors, Environmental Climate, and Job Satisfaction among Police in Slovenia. European Journal of Criminology, 8, 144-156.

Newman, D. W., & Rucker-Reed, L. A. (2004). Police Stress, State-Trait Anxiety, and Stressors Among US Marshals. Journal of Criminal Justice, 32(6), 631-641.

Ortega, A., Brenner, S. O., & Leather, P. (2007). Occupational Stress, Coping and Personality in the Police: An Sem Study. International Journal of Police Science and Management, 9(1), 36-50.

Paoline, E., Myers, S., & Worden, R. E., (2000). Police Culture, Individualism, and Community Policing: Evidence from Two Police Departments. Justice Quarterly, 17(3), 575-605.

Perrewé, P. L., & Carlson, D. S. (2002). Do men and women benefit from social support equally? Results from a field examination within the work and family context', In D. L. Nelson and D. S. Burke (Eds.), Gender, work, stress, and health: Current research issues (pp. 101-114). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Pienaar, J., Sieberhagen, C. F., & Mostert, K. (2007). Investigating Turnover Intentions by Role Overload, Job Satisfaction and Social Support Moderation. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 33(2), 62 - 67.

Pursley, R. D. (1974). Leadership and Community Identification Attitudes among Two Categories of Police Chiefs: An Exploratory Inquiry. Journal of Police Science and Administration, 2(4), 414-422.

Rhoades, L., & Eisenberger, R. (2002). Perceived organizational support: A review of the literature', Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(4), 698-714.

Fincham, R., & Peter S. R. (1999). Organizational Behavior (3rd Edition), Oxford University Press: New York USA.

Ruthankoon, R., & Ogunlana, S. O. (2003). Testing Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory in the Thai Construction Industry. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 10(5), 333-342.

Schermelleh-Engel, K., Moosbrugger, H., & Müller, H. (2003). Evaluating the Fit of Structural Equation Models: Tests of Significance and Descriptive Goodness-of-Fit Measures. Methods of Psychological Research Online, 8(2), 23-74.

Schmidt, S. W. (2007). The Relationship between Satisfaction with Workplace Training and Overall Job Satisfaction. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 18(4), 481-498.

Schwabe, W., Davis, L. M., & Jackson, B. A. (2001). Challenges and Choices for Crime-Fighting Technology: Federal Support of State and Local Law Enforcement. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp.

Shane, J. M. (2008). Organizational Stressors and Police Performance. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, State University of New Jersey.

Sheptycki, J. W. E. (1998). The Global Cops Cometh: Reflection on Transnationalization, Knowledge Work and Policing Subculture. The British Journal of Sociology, 49(1), 57-74.

Skolnick, J. H., & Fyfe, J. (1993). Above the Law: Police and The Excessive Use of Force. New York: Free Press.

Spector, P. E. (1985). Measurement of Human Service Staff Satisfaction: Development of The Job Satisfaction Survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13(6), 693713.

Spector, P. E. (1997). Job Satisfaction: Application, Assessment, Cause, and Consequences. New York: Sage Publications, Inc.

Stamper, C. L., & Johlke, M. C. (2003). The impact of perceived organizational support on the relationship between boundary spanner role stress and work outcomes. Journal of Management, 29(4), 569-588.

Toch, H. (2002). Stress in Policing, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Violanti, J. M. (1997). Suicide and the Police Role: A Psychosocial Model. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 20(4), 698-715.

Violanti, J. M., & Aron, F. (1994). Ranking Police Stressors. Psychological Reports, 75(2), 824-826.

Violanti, J., & Aron, F. (1995). Police Stressors: Variations in Perception among Police Personnel', Journal of Criminal Justice, 23(3), 287-294.

Waddington, P. A. J. (1999). Police (Canteen) Sub-culture, British Journal of Criminology 39(2), 287-309.

Wood, R. L., Davis, M., & Rouse, A. (2004). Diving into quicksand: Program implementation and police subcultures. W. G. Skogan (ed.), Community Policing: Can It Work? (pp. 136-162). Belmont: Wadsworth.

Wan, T. T. H. (2002), Evidence-Based Health Care Management: Multivariate Modeling Approaches (1st ed.), Norwell, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Wicks, R. J. (2005). Overcoming Secondary Stress in Medical and Nursing Practice: A Guide to Professional Resilience and Personal Well-Being. Oxford University Press, USA.

Zhao, J., Thurman, Q., & He, N. (1999). Sources of Job Satisfaction among Police Officers: A Test of Demographic and Work Environment Models. Justice Quarterly, 16(1), 153-173.