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Introduction
The construction industry is confronted with challenges from dynamic information exchange in projects, its difficulty to form effective teams, fragmented approaches to project delivery, etc. (Wang et al., 2007; Baiden et al., 2006). A significant phenomenon in the construction field is that subcontractors of a project are often geographically dispersed. Related planners usually have different specialties and perform their own planning work in different locations. Their independent, but interrelated, planning can inevitably cause conflicts when their plans are integrated eventually. Considering these critical issues, it had been proposed to integrate construction project process so as to eliminate repeated work to improve effectiveness and efficiency in construction projects (Prescott, 1998).
Four-dimensional (4D) modelling (or 4D Computer-Aided Design [CAD] or 4D simulation) is one of computer simulation techniques that can simulate construction processes to disclose potential conflicts in construction plans (Collier et al., 1996). By linking specified construction tasks in a bar chart, the work breakdown structure (WBS), with associated components in a three-dimensional (3D) building model, and the product breakdown structure (PBS), the computer can generate a dynamic 3D construction sequence alone with time progressing in a standalone working situation. Through such an approach to 4D modelling, hidden conflicts in the construction plan can possibly be visualised and updated to improve the plan. Figure 1 shows a typical 4D modelling process that can enhance a developed construction plan through several linking–simulation–updating iterations.
4D modelling is highlighted to facilitate planners’ teamwork for collaborative construction planning (Heesom et al., 2004). The bar chart-based 4D modelling has demonstrated its usefulness in conflict-checking through online 4D simulation (Kang et al., 2007) and incorporating plan data from multiple planners in commercially available tools like Synchro 4D (Synchro, 2014), albeit not promoting planners’ collaboration during the planning. As a matter of fact, the bar chart-based 4D modelling is confined for collaboration because it requires a developed plan as input, which has no contribution from 3D models but relies on planner’s imagination from two-dimensional (2D) blue prints (Chau et al., 2005). This independent imaginary plan excludes planners’ teamwork to make a plan.
Human computer studies suggest that a unique socio-technical context can foster collaborative work (Fischer et al., 2005). Being the only design illustration, a...