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Introduction
Rapid advances in knowledge and technology, and societal changes that mean a career for life is an increasing rarity, have led to greater emphasis on lifelong learning to maintain individual competence and employability ( Bassot 2009 ). In the case of those involved in professional practice, the responsibility for ensuring engagement in lifelong learning goes beyond the level of the individual to that of the statutory body. The 'social contract' that underpins all professions depends on public trust that members of the profession will have received appropriate initial training, and maintained their complex knowledge and skills current in relation to best practice and standards ( Hilton and Slotnick 2005 , May 2013 ).
Historically, much continuing professional development (CPD) has been delivered in a traditional lecture format. This has supported additional learning, based on the input-based measures set by many professional bodies ( IAESB 2008 ). However, research on traditional CPD suggests that its consequent effect on professional practice is disappointing ( Davis and others 1999 , Forsetlund and others 2009 ). While some factual knowledge may be gained, there is little evidence that this results in changes in behaviour leading to benefits to clients or professional businesses. One problem would appear to be that much CPD is based on old pedagogies of information transmission and 'just-in-case' learning ( Williams 2007 ). More effective CPD programmes are aligned with an individual's work requirements and provide timely and relevant professional development ( Davis and others 1999 , Forsetlund and others 2009 ).
The concurrent recognition of the need for maintenance and improvement of professional skills and the limitations of traditional CPD has led to exhortations for a move to completely new models for continuous learning that are competency-based, focused on patient needs and embedded in the workplace ( Miller and others 2010 , Legare and others 2015 ). Conceptual frameworks have been developed which link desired outcomes, at the levels of physician behaviour and patient benefits, to appropriate formative and summative assessment, supported by presentations and discussions using practice-relevant educational materials ( Moore and others 2009 ). However, in the latest design of its professional Certificate in Advanced Veterinary Practice (CertAVP), the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons (RCVS), UK, has gone a stage further in...