BETWEEN PERCEPTION

Abstract

Perception is a subjective exercise determined by the context where it is generated, being the cultural processes the main determinant to construct what it is perceived. In this sense, the culture is considered as an ambient factor that is performed in a collective but not universal way, through which individuals are constituted. This suppose an amalgam of different productions that depend on the environment, yet built by subjects whose movements generate new or not contextualized paradigms in terms of the ways and areas they are in contact with.

Headnote

Abstract: Perception is a subjective exercise determined by the context where it is generated, being the cultural processes the main determinant to construct what it is perceived. In this sense, the culture is considered as an ambient factor that is performed in a collective but not universal way, through which individuals are constituted. This suppose an amalgam of different productions that depend on the environment, yet built by subjects whose movements generate new or not contextualized paradigms in terms of the ways and areas they are in contact with.

Keywords: Perception, affordance, experience attention, multidisciplinary, representation

Research interests: The Multidisciplinary Research Group in Cultural Studies (GIMEC) was created under the aegis of CDCS (European Centre for the Dissemination of Social Sciences). Our aims are to investigate with multidisciplinary framework the complexity of concepts as culture, perception, etc.

Email group GIMEC: [email protected]

1. Introduction

We started some years ago developing our academical activity, from humility and multidisciplinary approach, as the platform to analyze the realities and those aspects that are direct and indirect related with culture.

Our motivation to deal with perception concept lies in the deep and accurate connection that maintains with culture. In human cases, it is evident that physiological mechanics of perception are similar; nevertheless, the interpretative mechanics of perception produce bias that we found very interesting.

Perception, in global, is under our interest (at individual and collective level), principally because it is an essential tool to understand ours surroundings, it is different between beings and the cultural trace affects, critically, in how and what we perceive. Even so, we will not deal with a detailed analysis of perception, looking for quintessence, but we will deal with the aspects of perception in which we are more interested.

2. Discerning the Reality Empire

Sloterdijk said (2000): "Humanism as word and as a movement always has a goal, a purpose, a rationale: it is a commitment to save men from Barbarism". In various seminaries, lectures and papers, we have already approached savagery-barbarism/ civilization-humanity, we believe it essential in shaping otherness, and we understand it as a projection of the first binomial confronted: animal / human.

Generally speaking, form the western point of view, when we think of ourselves, in humanity as a whole, appear the characteristic values of civilization: The Civilized Humanity... What we will finish to define as "Reality Empire"; because indeed we will mention aspects in this text, partially related to what we were studying until now: Formsof-life. We say, therefore, how from humanism, as supremacist philosophy, it displays over discourse, what we would denominate the "Reality Empire".

The "Reality Empire" finally breaks down like "Imperative of Reality" in our life, and even being a category that shows essence, we have catalogued it always as state. In our conception of what Heideger understood as being-there, doesn't include the valuation of a preconceived existence and faithful to essence, but responds to how is (state, non essence) the world around us (what-perceived).

We can see in an etymological approach to the concept of Reality three morphemes: res (thing), -alis (relative to) and -ity (quality); then, Realitas means 'the quality what is true, what is real (realis)'. We could understand, thus, the Reality, the realität, like a operative-operating, namely, a dispositive that resolves what pretends, and that works, that facilitates the understanding of what-perceived. What-perceived we follow seeing it like what goes beyond of understanding or translating as realität; we could say that realität is an interpretation of what-perceived, in the rough, that is defined, or it goes to defining depending of the perceptive mold (in all aspects) to which we have come, through interpretative mechanisms "subjugated", and "juxtaposes", to the subjectivity and previous accumulation of experiences of life and dreams. For example if we analyze the different contemporary worldviews, clearer in their differences, between a maasái member or an executive of New York; or between an executive of New York and an AfroAmerican guy of West Baltimore; or in the different historical worldviews, if we compare a sans-culotte with an olmeca.

In this sense, we can evaluate the zoom according to how we tune up in the study's context, because no one composes their Realitas of the same way that a cultural analogous. A father than a son or daughter, a neighbor than other, a friend than other friend, and so on. Equivalence or metaphors that result in identification of coequal similarities may occur, but certainly the particular interpretation of the world, although with "similar" cultural background, responds to a singular subjective milestone. We could say that probably coincide mostly those categories decoding the world or the environment, depending on how we appoint or analyze the situation or context in which we bring up; while there will be nuances significant enough to make a difference in the interpretation of what-perceived.

We say that what-perceived is (state) perceived, but not that is (essence) perceived, because we don't perceive the essences of the res; but rather the situation or state in which they are, or rather they are found.

We extend this "Reality Empire" as imperative-of-reality, considering the meaning of Imperium, concept with we worked before in another seminaries, conferences and papers.

Thus, we have to approach later, introduce us into the factors or concepts like the Imaginatio as possibility condition; the potentiality of arts or what artistic as engine change and it relationship with creativity, imaginative and dreamy capacity. The quality and attribute of discourses, as well as building concepts that categorize our thinking and the specific keys to discern the world.

However, the keys, the mechanisms of thought's articulation, as containers of ideology, throw specifics' worlds. Like Nietzsche said, citing by Foucault (1989) "[...] Western Metaphysics is linked not only to its grammar, but to those who, speaking monopolize the right to speak [...]", adding, and the ability to shape it.

3. Urban perception

3.1. Affordance in the cities

James J. Gibson, from ecological perception approach, developed the concept affordance: "affordance of anything is a specific combination of the properties of its substance and its surfaces taken with reference to an animal" (Gibson, 1977). In a certain way, affordances are similar to the idea of "meaning" of one object, without the mentalist dimension; affordance means the potentiality of actions that the object offer (Aivar et al, 2002).

Affordance concept suppose a new approach in the cities researches considering that give: 1) a new conceptual framework to understand the relations between individuals and the surroundings built over the time; 2) a theoretical base to improve the designs, giving a common code; and 3) an evaluation tool to explore the relation between the intention and the real use of the design (Maier et al, 2009).

The city is an "open place" of affordances. Thus, the city is not a tabula rasa; otherwise it's a force system, lights, shadows, sounds, silences, obstacles that structure possibilities of several actions. Affordance permits to think that the relations among neighbourhood residents and their places sketched are not closed; they are produced in the merge, transforming potentially, between the places and the residents interced by the action developed between each others.

3.2. City as dispositive

In agreement to Deleuze (1989), a dispositive is a type of ball, a multilineal combination. It is composed by different natural lines, and, these lines of the dispositive not cover the system, each ones would be similar by their own, otherwise they follow different directions. These lines always build desequilibres processes; these lines as bring closed as go away each others.

This concept, contemplated by Foucault in the 70's, suggests "the net that could be develop in a diverse elements group that includes discourses, institutions, regulations, laws, administrative rules, science declarations, moralist and philosophical proposals" (Moro, 2003). If we analyse the city as dispositive, we will understand the control mechanisms that exist, upset the individual perception and affect the intra and interpersonal relations. On the other hand, it is possible to analyze the subjetivize processes that decide the life of the residents.

Beside of these concepts, it is interesting to remember the theories provide by different authors about the poverty. It is known that the poverty theories since XVIII, and that feed a good chance of XX works, are developed to justify the growing social inequality that run with the develop of capitalism. In the last decade of XX, it's provide one new concept: social exclusion. This concept is deeply normative and marks who is inside the normality previously defined, who has the proper behaviour and ideas, who is correctly connected to the strategical place means, with the proper social relation and who performance as has to be (Pilar Monreal, 1996, 2014).

3.3. City hacked

Since the medium XX century, the cities started to grow up and showed big urban places re-organized among that a character and necessities of "standard" citizen model, and the diverse reality were made uniform and simplify. The cities were segregated by functional areas: work places, education, entertainment, neighbourhood...

As a capitalism reflection in the territory, cities have been transformed in objects that are used unfairly, thanks to the collaboration between the political and economical establishment. Signs of this are the gentrification process (lower-income families and small business are pushed to migrate out of their neighbourhoods while middle-class people arrive to drive an elite urban place; Glass, 1964) or the business improvement districts (local business associated signed agreements with the local government to improve the urban services, but they decided which are the priorities in these neighbourhoods; Kreutz, 2009). As Tiqqun collective explained, the objective is to maintain the model in base of the "presence management": residents have to be out of the streets, out of the places (Deleuze-Tiqqun, 2012). Streets become in new object to consume, whole cities support the economical model prevailing as perfect dispositives.

Among the History, it was showed how individuals reacted against dispositives and over tacked the limits; they produced new relation with the places and increased the affordances pre-established. In this last decade, Occupy Wall Street in EEUU or 15-M in Spain, social street markets or the Social International Forum, these examples show the possibilities of hack the cities, jump across the dispositives in the neighbourhoods and get new affordance of spaces, exploring and recovering the human relationships as support for the new urban process.

4. Review of "five aristotelian senses"

Perception is a process from the collection of stimuli by the body receptors, their decoding using neural structures, and finally the interpretation, which also involved such neural structures, but strongly influenced by the culture and previous experience. From the point of view of biology, we will focus on the body receivers or "the sense organs".

The current idea of "sense organs" comes from the texts of Aristotle, who ranked them in the 5 senses that even today we still use: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell (Pineda, 1998).

However, in recent decades, the boom in biomedical disciplines has revolutionized both technical and conceptual level. Theories like Darwinian revolution have been relieved by neo-Darwinism, thanks to advances in molecular biology, paleontology and genetics. Similarly, there have been great advances in the study of the sense organs and different receptors associated to each of them. Therefore we consider that we must review the classical concept of the "5 senses" to adapt to recent studies.

If nowadays we know the existence of nociceptors, thermoreceptors and tactile receptors (Talagas & Misery, 2015), why should we keep talking about the sense of touch, when at least 3 receptors are associated with 3 completely different functions? Therefore we should talk about nociception (pain sense) (Julius & Basmaun, 2001), thermoception (temperature) (Green, 2004) and pressure.

Similarly, for decades or even centuries it has been known the existence of different receptors on the taste (bitter, sweet, sour, salty). Currently the research argue that there is a fifth taste, called umami, and also deny the popular belief that every tongue area has specific receptors for a particular taste, as it has been shown that different tongue areas converge giving each part different taste receptors (Li et al, 2002). In turn, smell, despite having completely different receivers, is an essential element for the culinary process. Current research claims that we can distinguish millions of different scents, which fall into 10 different categories.

On the other hand, hearing is in charge of the auditory processing and it is also responsible for sense of equilibrium (equilibrioception) (Barnett-Cowan, 2013).

As to the sense of sight, we know it is due to the action of two different types of photoreceptors, the rods and cones. Functionally, the rods are more sensitive to light than the cones, and they are found throughout the retina and are important for visual perception when the light is low intensity, as in the twilight and dawn. They are receptors of low frequency (380-600 nm wavelength). Cones are less sensitive to light than rods, and are functionally more important when the light intensity is high, such as during the day (highfrequency receptors 450 at 780 nm) (Vicario, 1999).

Finally, the research points to the existence of new meanings, as the perception of the relative position of our own body, or kinaesthetic (McCloskey, 1978), and the perception of time or cronoception (Prieto-González et al, 2014). The kinesthetic sense can be understood relatively easily as an integrated process of neural structures, and touch receptors and responsible of balance. However, it is much harder to understand the cronoception. We know that there are physiological elements, as the epiphysis, that are involved in body changes associated with the cyclical and seasonal changes. But, can we really say that there are body receptors capable of perceive time?

Therefore we propose a future line of research that covers a genealogy of the concept of time, to help us understand and integrate it into studies on perception, in order to develop a theory that allow us understand variations in the perception of time in different animal species.

5. Perception and audiovisual representation: What is the link?

The words "perception" and "cinematography" are loaded with multiple meanings and are subject to considerable similar theoretical developments, with definite shared characteristics. Therefore, the study of film and audiovisuals is a study on the perception itself. Cinema, as well as art, has a strong relationship with religion, science and philosophy, that is, audiovisual representation has been developed as a way to understand, to explain the mystery of the world of things, of the human being (corporeality and soul (emotion), to catalog the diverse, to take and objectify the heterogeneous and changing reality. Mitry suggest (Mitry, 1997) that film allows man to organize and give sense to nature's events. This object dominates time and space in a frame. In this sense, there are several studies focusing on the analysis of time and space representation, we stand out Deleuze and his "MovementImage and Time-Image" (Deleuze 1986).

The link between cinema and reality creates a space of representation of that reality in key-realism. The concept of reality from the point of view of their form of representation is accepted as a fact, as something pre-existing to this representation, something finished. From this standpoint, we can only be witnesses. As José Enrrique Monteverde explains:

"(...) We suggest as "reality" in very general terms, a framework which covers the empirical, sensitive and habitable world, but involves the territories of the conceptual, symbolic, sentimental, imaginary, etc; that is, everything that can affect (or be affected by) physical or mental action of man in his individual and social dimensions" (Monteverde, 2001, pp. 15-16) (translated from Spanish by me).

In this sense, José Antonio Marina (1993) says that reality is "all the meanings that a person sees". From the vantage point of semiotic theory, the perception would be "assimilate stimuli to give meanings", similar to the well-known proposal of Heisenberg cited in the same text "We should not forget that what we observe is not nature itself, but nature determined by our questions"· The story of perception represents the subject who feels and acts in the world. Representation is an appearance of our feelings, imaginations and our form of being in the world (Monteverde, 2001) (translated from Spanish by me).

Representation, then, is composed of shots, signs, codes, words that make up a language...a cluster of meanings. Important, too, is constructivist notion of perception. On this view, representation is a construction itself that continuously reproduces the results of the interaction between two factors (social and emotional). Thus, knowledge, as well as representation, is not a copy of reality but a reconstruction by the individual. The act to perceive is representing. This means looking closely at how experimentation, empowerment and recognition are interesting to understand this process. Films translates feelings, emotions and provides a reflection of the world. According Mitry (2002, p. 10) exists in this process "(...) a time, a social phenomenon, a psychic need and aesthetic reality" (translated from Spanish by me). Also, representation mediates between man and the world. Projection and reproduction (on live) are "a momentary psychic ideal", a mediator value between the real and the ideal. In the words of Malraux, the cinema therefore "No imitates life, but reveals it" (Malraux, 1959) (translated from Spanish by me).

In sum, the audiovisual image have the following features:

1. Language and expression. It has been necessary to create a language and codes, and an object. A representation.

2. Objective and subjective. Moving-image, projection and reproduction intercede between man and the world.

3. Analogon-experience. Build a sense, it simulates a continuum that serves as analogon (Sartre) between reality and film.

4. Movement-construction-existential space. Representation includes experimentation, re-power and knowledge processes.

There are several theories and interpretations that analyze the link between film and reality. This helps us to understand the complexity of their definition and values. In other words, it will help us to understand ways of perceiving reality in film, brief genealogy:

1. Constructivist. The reality is the result of a construction, the result of the work of many vectors. Constructions of reality are based on what we know about her (including pictures and sound). In this sense, we need to bear in mind the media coverage that we suffer, the social and historical context, hence the conditions under which we construct reality (Soviet school).

2. Phenomenological-existential. Experiential phenomenological consciousness, Heidegger, Pounty and Sartre.

3. Positivist-spectacular. The age of information and Hollywood (Palao, 2004).

Given these characteristics and theoretical currents we can find common ground between diverse intellectual traditions and cinematic impulses that tell us about ways to "see the world on the screen". These models or modes represent a reflection on the perception. This is yet another example of how the film reflects on the act of perceiving and, above all, their way of seeing and perceiving the world. An example of this would be: Griffith and the "Institutional Model of Representation" (IMR), Hollywood and the "paradigm of the show", or film-hegemonic culture. Kuleshov and the soviet filmmakers as Sergei Eisenstein. Vertov and the "kino-eye" theory. Without neglecting the vanguards currents and pure cinema, that is Nouvelle Vague, Italian neorealism, Dogma 95...among them we can emphasize Epstein, Fernand Léger, Dulac, Gance or Richter, among others.

Faced with this scenario, our work focuses on developing a line of research linked to the analysis of perception and cinema. The results of this analysis will be presented soon.

6. Miscellaneous perceptions

6.1. Introduction

Perception is the mechanism by which human and nonhuman animals are linked to the world. It mediates among stimuli of external world and mental individual functions of organization and categorization. Perception generates the "image" we have of environment, a worldview. This complex function is ranging from active pursuit of the source of stimuli (Gibson 1969), late selection of relevant stimuli (Deutsch y Deutsh 1963), stimuli categorization and conceptualization, to the feedback of the individual's action.

Perception has been a recurring topic in philosophy, and it has been studied in depth in humans by psychologist. Gestalt psychologists studied deeply this issue at the beginnings of 20th century. They proposed several universal principles that always work in the presence of the combination of specific stimuli (Oviedo 2004). Some of these principles are: 1) tend to differentiate between figure and ground, 2) tend to lump stimuli which are closed together, that are perceived as a single structure, 3) tend to close open shapes and 4) perceptual constancy, the perception of the same stimulus from different perspectives, different illuminations or from different positions. This universal approach of perception has had many followers in psychology, and it has strengthened the view that perception could be explained from the knowledge of the structure of the nervous system.

6.2. The effect of the environment

State the opposite view Faced with this view, other scientists gave more importance to environment: empiricists (Pérez 2005). They thought that the physical and cultural environment change perception individually. This current of thought was nurtured of researches which were conducted at the beginnings of 20th century: cross-cultural studies. Many of them were based on compare: different effects of optical illusions, colour perception or pictorial depth perception among cultures. A cultural psychologist, Rivers (1901, 1926), studied the perceptual differences between New Guinea tribes and the Indian population. In his researches he concluded that "primitives" had more effectiveness in labours related with visual perception. But not by having greater capacity, but by attends more to the details of the environment. It was not due to have greater capacity, it was on account of attend more to the details of the environment. Rivers said that this was due to the strong environmental pressures that tribes faced when they were finding food or were defending of potential dangers of a natural environment.

Segall, Campbell and Herskovitz (1963, 1966) conducted a research about the effect of three different optical illusions among twelve different cultures. They chose a well-balance sample as to age, sex and other variables as schooling. Their results showed that optical illusions had more effect in early ages than in adults in every culture. Moreover, they observed that western subjects were more susceptible to Müller-Lyer illusion (Figure 1) than non-western subjects. In contrast, non-western people were more susceptible to horizontalvertical illusion (Figure 2) than western people. The origin of these differences could be due to the different development environments of these populations. In the first case it could be explained by western environment dominated by right angles against non-western environment dominated by curved lines and open spaces. These geometric differences in the environment could be facilitated visual adaptations in western people to understand closed angles in an arrow as lines that move away, so that they interpreted it as bigger lines; and open angles as approaching lines, so that they interpreted it as smaller lines. Comparing angle lines with centre lines of arrows changes the perception of the length of centre lines of each arrow. In the second case, it could be explained by the differences of openness in each environment: non-western environment had more open spaces than western environment. Because of non-western people were habituated to this environment they understood vertical lines as lines that move away, so they interpreted it as bigger lines against horizontal lines. These explanations give ecological sense to the effect of these optical illusions among cultures, redefining optical illusions as the consequences of successful optical adaptations to the environment.

6.3. The role of attention

Attention is an important factor in perception at different moments. In this work we highlight role as first step of the process. It selects the source of stimuli, anticipating information in base on past experiences and other factors, sifting the stimuli which will be processed afterwards. As in perception studies, some scientist have proposed several principles of attention (García-sevilla 1997; Añaños 1999). Attention is focused in bigger, more colourful, more intense, moving, more complex and novel stimuli. Each of these principles is strictly dependent on the environment.

However, not everything is universal in attention: motivation, emotion and personal interest are highly variables among individuals and they are important modulation factors in preference stimuli (Easterbrook, 1959; Garcia-sevilla 1997).

6.4. Comparative psychology - Human and non-human animals

In addition to cultural psychology, another branch in psychology that explores the perceptual diversity is comparative psychology. These highly influential studies have as main objective understand general mental processes in animals, focusing in humans through the study of other animals (Dewsbury 1984). Because of its phylogenetic proximity, primates have been much studied, especially from cognitive psychology. The view among researchers is diverse about animal capacities. On one hand, some scientists think that between human and non-humans animals there are significant differences in mental capacities. On the other hand, other scientists think that these differences exist, but they could be explained by a greater quantitative development in some specific mental functions (Henríquez 2014).

In perception these differences are minimums. In other animal species there are "universal principles" too, as in humans, but they are different in some cases. For example, in baboons (Papio papio) has been observed that the human perceptual principle which humans focus first of all in global contour and then in details (Navon 1997), the opposite occurs. In the first place baboons focus his attention in the components and then in the global shape (Fagot, Tomonaga & Deruelle 2001). In the case of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have no preference in this respect. They focus the global shape and the components in the same way.

However, as in humans, experience is an important modulation factor in non-human perception. Tanaka (2007) conducted a research about the capacity of interpret pictorial representations in chimpanzees. He observed that not all subjects could understand the drawings, but it does the photographs. All chimpanzees that passed the test were juveniles, except one. It was the only one involved in a similar research with other pictorial representations when it was an infant. Tanaka concluded that the experience during chimpanzee infancy is critical for development of this ability. Other scientists think that it could occur in a similar way in humans (DeLoache et al. 1998).

Experience and learning seem to have a great impact in high-level capacities of perception, as self-recognition. Self-directed mirror-induced behaviours are described in great apes, except in gorillas, and in humans from two years. Other primates, as rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), systematically fail this test. Chang et al. (2015) questioned whether after visual-somatosensory training macaques would be able to perform self-directed mirrorinduced behaviours. The results were satisfactory: the macaques began to perform behaviours just as great apes and adult humans.

6.5. The diversity of perception

As we could observe above, perception is a complex phenomenon that joins in a wide range of mental processes in human and non-human animals. It is far from being a uniform phenomenon between individuals and species. Emotions, personal interests, learning and past experiences are great modulation factors which individualized perception. Just as the cultural psychology extended the conception of the diversity of perception and the important role of experience in humans, comparative psychology is opening up new lines of thought for understand the real diversity of perception.

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