Qualitative Study of MMTS: Coaches' Experience

Abstract

The present study examines the perceptions of a women's Division I soccer coaching staff of their team participating in the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS), a 6-week twice-weekly mindfulness and compassion training intervention. The purpose of the current study is to explore and report the coaches' perception regarding the value of the MMTS to themselves and to their athletes, and to offer suggestions of how to improve the design and delivery of the MMTS intervention. Three coaches participated in face-to-face interviews after the completion of the MMTS program in order for the researchers to ascertain participant experiences, perceived benefits to their team, and recommendations to improve the design and delivery of the MMTS program. The researchers utilized thematic analysis to code the interviews, and four themes emerged. In the main findings, coaches reported experiencing less emotional reactivity to their own negative thoughts and emotions while coaching on the field (games and practices) as well as observing a positive change in how players emotionally recovered from mistakes on the field. The findings suggest the inclusion of coaches in mindfulness meditation training programs may be beneficial for both coaches and athletes.

Headnote

Abstract

The present study examines the perceptions of a women's Division I soccer coaching staff of their team participating in the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS), a 6-week twice-weekly mindfulness and compassion training intervention. The purpose of the current study is to explore and report the coaches' perception regarding the value of the MMTS to themselves and to their athletes, and to offer suggestions of how to improve the design and delivery of the MMTS intervention. Three coaches participated in face-to-face interviews after the completion of the MMTS program in order for the researchers to ascertain participant experiences, perceived benefits to their team, and recommendations to improve the design and delivery of the MMTS program. The researchers utilized thematic analysis to code the interviews, and four themes emerged. In the main findings, coaches reported experiencing less emotional reactivity to their own negative thoughts and emotions while coaching on the field (games and practices) as well as observing a positive change in how players emotionally recovered from mistakes on the field. The findings suggest the inclusion of coaches in mindfulness meditation training programs may be beneficial for both coaches and athletes.

Keywords: coaching, meditation program, mindfulness training

Introduction

In response to the lack of research on coaches' perceptions of offering mindfulness meditation programs to athletic teams, the present study examines the perceptions of a women's Division I soccer coaching staff with Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS), a 6week twice-weekly mindfulness and compassion training intervention. The purpose of the current study is to explore and report the coaches' perception regarding the value of the MMTS to themselves, and to their athletes, and to offer suggestions of how to improve the design and delivery of the MMTS intervention. The purpose of mindfulness training is quite distinct from that of traditional mental skills training. "The primary focus of mindfulness and acceptance-based models is to promote a modified relationship with internal experiences (i.e., cognitions, emotions, and physiological sensations), rather than seeking to change their form or frequency" (Gardner & Moore, 2012, p. 309). The difference between mindfulness and traditional mental skills training lies in the mechanism of change; individuals accepting versus trying to control their internal experience, which results in enhanced mental efficiency (Gardner & Moore, 2012). Essentially, with such efficiency, the athlete gains the capacity for more attention on task-relevant cues versus on internal experience.

Within the sport realm, however, much attention has focused on mental skills training to improve performance (e.g., Frey, Laguna, & Ravizza, 2003). Mental skills training programs typically focus on imagery, goal setting, concentration, confidence, self-talk, and the establishment of routines (Weinberg & Williams, 2006). Practitioners often use these mental skills training techniques to help clients change or suppress emotions and thoughts (Craft, Magyar, Becker, & Feltz, 2003; Maynard, Smith, & Warwick-Evans, 1995). Some theorists question the assumption that athletes can improve psychological functioning and performance via controlling emotions and thoughts (Gardner & Moore, 2012; Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999).

Mindfulness meditation (John, Verma, & Khanna, 2011) and mindfulness-based interventions (Gardner & Moore, 2007) have begun to emerge as an alternative to traditional mental skills training in sport. Baer (2003) defines meditation as "the intentional self-regulation of attention from moment to moment" (p. 125). Kabat-Zinn (2005) defines mindfulness as "an open-hearted, moment-to-moment non-judgmental awareness" (p. 24). Kabat-Zinn, Beall, and Rippe (1985) first used mindfulness meditation (MM) training for collegiate and Olympic rowers. In their study, the rowers reported valuing the training and performance benefits. Subsequently, Kabat-Zinn introduced Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), a time intensive mindfulness meditation based intervention that has proven highly efficacious in reducing medical and psychological symptoms (Keng, Smoski & Robin, 2011).

Kabat-Zinn's mindfulness meditation approach or his MBSR program serve as the basis for most of the interventions in sport. For example, the Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) approach mirrors MBSR, with MSPE consisting of two and half or three hour weekly sessions for four weeks and uses many of the same components of MBSR. Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff (2009) showed MPSE to increase the mindfulness and flow of archers and golfers, and DePetrillo, Kaufman, Glass, and Arnkoff (2009) showed this in runners. In terms of using a Kabat-Zinn mindfulness meditation approach, Aherne, Moran, and Lonsdale (2011) used a Kabat-Zinn CD (Williams, Teasdale, Segal & Kabat-Zinn, 2007) for their intervention, which included a range of mindfulness practices and resulted in increased experience of flow for the athletes.

Research has begun to highlight the connection between mindfulness interventions and successful sport performance. John, Verma, and Khanna (2011) reported improved performance of elite male shooters who participated in a four-week mindfulness meditation intervention. A study of swimmers found that relatively higher levels of mindfulness and acceptance associated with swimmers' ability to optimize performance (Bernier, Codron, & Fournier, 2009). Gardner and Moore (2007, 2006, 2004) designed the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) approach specifically for athletes to learn to self-regulate attention skills and, ultimately, enhance performance. Researchers using the MAC protocol using a case study design resulted in many benefits including enhanced performance and mindfulness of an adolescent springboard diver (Schwanhausser, 2009), reduced worry and more engagement of a male swimmer, and best sport performance of a female power lifter (Gardner & Moore, 2004).

While existing literature on mindfulness training among athletes is increasing, no literature exists on coaches' perceptions of sport focused mindfulness programs. In general, coaches' perceptions of sport psychology-based interventions determines whether they will offer such programs to their athletes (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008). Voight and Callaghan (2001) found that the coaches are often the ones to bring in sport psychology professionals. Coaches have reported viewing sport psychology consultants and services favorably if they believed their athletes experienced long-term positive effects in competition due to such interventions (Partington & Orlick, 1987).

Method

Three coaches and 19 female soccer players from a Division I varsity women's soccer team from the northeast United States participated in the twelve 30-minute MMTS sessions over the course of six weeks. An experienced meditation facilitator led the sessions twice a week for six weeks. The head coach of the team required that all team members and coaching staff attend the MMTS sessions. The researchers attained Institutional Review Board approval prior to the start of the study. Participants signed an informed consent form, indicating they could terminate participation at any point. Boston University's Institutional Review Board approved the study.

The research team interviewed the coaches one week after the coaches completed the MMTS program. Each individual face-to-face interview lasted for approximately 45 minutes. The researchers' interview prompts included: (1) What did you like about the MMTS program?; (2) What did you not like about the MMTS program? (3) What did you enjoy about the actual practice of meditation? (4) What did you not enjoy about the actual practice of meditation? (5) How could practitioners improve the MMTS program?

Brief Description of Mindfulness Meditation Training in Sport (MMTS)

The mediation instructor designed MMTS to help teach athletes formal mindfulness meditation practices. Specifically, practitioners designed MMTS to help athletes leam to be more accepting of present moment experience, to increase concentration, and to help athletes have a changed relationship to negative emotions within their sport experience. Sedlmeier et al. (2012) identify the typical tools mindfulness instructors use to teach new mindfulness meditators, which include observation of breath, counting breath, and labeling current thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations. The MMTS program integrates all of these mindfulness meditation tools while emphasizing a non-j udgmental acceptance of thoughts, feelings, and sensations. In addition, the instructor included specific practice of compassion for self and others in the design of MMTS.

There are four main components of the MMTS training:

1. Open awareness capacity: Participants practice being aware of moment-to-moment experiences (e.g., sounds, body sensations, and thoughts), including being aware of breathing in a passive and non-j udgmental manner.

2. Caring thoughts for self and teammates: In some sessions, the meditation facilitator guided participants on creating and practicing "wishing caring and warm thoughts" toward themselves and their teammates. Though mindfulness based interventions are not typically included in sport, the inclusion of compassion-based practices with mindfulness practices is common within the Buddhist tradition (Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999; Salzberg, 2011). This portion of the MMTS program is based on Loving Kindness Meditation, which emphasizes increasing feelings of warmth and kindness toward self and others (Fredrickson, Cohn, Coffey, Pek, & Finkel, 2008) and Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) compassionate mind training (Gilbert, 2011). The MMTS compassion exercise is consistent with compassion imagery, a part of Gilbert's (2009) CFT. Gilbert designed compassionate mind training to help clients create a sense of inner safety and warmth toward self and, thus, be more emotionally tolerant.

3. Concentration exercises: The meditation facilitator introduced participants to a variety of concentration exercises throughout the training that prompted participants to focus attention on breathing (e.g., counting each inhale and each exhale). These specific mindfulness exercises served as additional points of focus, while the athletes practiced awareness and nonjudgmental acceptance.

4. Practicing acceptance of negative mind-states: The meditation facilitator instructed participants to recall negative emotional moments in sport performance and to practice noticing and accepting the associated feelings. This practice of accepting negative mindstates is similar to Siegel's (2010) Stepping into Fear, a mindfulness meditation exercise. Specifically, the meditation facilitator prompted the participants to visualize a scenario that included an aversive memory from sport performance (e.g., frustration or embarrassment), and then the meditation facilitator instructed them to re-experience the emotions and label that state of mind (Baer, 2003). The meditation facilitator designed this exercise to help participants practice recognizing, identifying, and accepting negative thoughts and feelings related to threatening sport specific events.

An expert mindfulness meditation facilitator led the sessions. He explained and discussed practices of mindfulness for about half of the session. The remaining 15 minutes of each session was devoted to mindfulness meditation practice and discussion. The facilitator encouraged participants to practice mindfulness meditation independently for five to ten minutes each day.

Data Analysis

The researcher team audiotaped and transcribed the interviews verbatim. For interviewer reliability, both the first and second authors read the transcripts and checked them against the audiotapes. The researcher team analyzed and coded the transcripts, and the team discussed the themes and sub'themes until the first three authors reached agreement about the themes, sub' themes and placement of raw data units within those sub'themes (Patton, 2002). The research team broke down the interview data based on the following: the coaches' pauses included in their responses (such as, "urn"...), points at which the coaches obviously ended a sentence, and points at which the topic of the given coaches' answers shifted. The research team derived raw data from each segment, which ranged in length from short phrases to entire paragraphs. The research team gave all raw data a brief title (i.e., code) to convey the given participant's meaning. The research team grouped together similar codes to form sub'themes, which then formed themes.

Results

The interview data produced four main themes: (1) Coaches' benefits in coaching and life; (2) Coaches valuing specific aspects of the MMTS program; (3) Coaches offering constructive feedback and program recommendations; and (4) Coach identifying athlete benefits from the MMTS program. Table 1 outlines the four themes and the sub'themes within each theme, which are in order of highest to lowest frequency.

Theme 1: Coaches' benefits in coaching and life

The first theme represents the coaches' reported benefits gained through participation in the MMTS program. Coaches noted increased awareness of their players' and their own feelings on and off the field. Coaches reported benefits of the MMTS program in both their professional and personal lives.

Sub-theme 1: Increased sensitivity to players' feelings. All three of the coaches reported becoming more focused on and better able to understand their players' emotional and mental states through participation in the MMTS program. Coach 1 indicated the MMTS program led her to consider the possibility that the athletes' mistakes on the field may not always relate to soccer. Coach 1 described developing "a real sensitivity to the players' mental state," and Coach 1 offered her insight that non-sport related issues might be the explanation for some of her players' apparent lack of focus on the field. Instead of repeatedly questioning the player about her mistakes on the field, Coach 3 reported that, based her participation in MMTS, she began to consider an alternative method to her coaching approach. Coach 1 recalls asking herself, "What else was going on, and what might be getting in the way [of optimal sport performance]?" Coach 1's responses conveyed a heightened appreciation, and evoked empathy, for the pressures their athletes experienced. Coach 2 also noted her new heightened awareness, from participating in MMTS, helped her recognize that athletes have a lot to deal with on and off the field, "You know we don't have a lot of time, the athletes don't have a lot of time. There's a lot of demands on them-"

Sub-theme 2: More aware of [coaches'] emotions-reactions outside work. All three coaches discussed the influence that the MMTS program had on their lives outside of coaching athletes. Coach 3 emphasized that participation in the MMTS program helped her to develop skills for coping with stressful moments, not just while coaching. She stated, "I am a little calmer. When dealing with frustrations or anger or my emotions, I can separate myself a little more... and see the emotion and label the emotion and not get as fired up-" Coaches reported participation in the MMTS program was personally beneficial due to their learning to be less reactive to aversive emotions in life outside of their work.

Sub-theme 3: New ways of interacting with players. Two of the coaches described gaining new strategies for outreach to players. Coach 3 indicated the MMTS program heightened her awareness of the importance of players being mindful (i.e., staying focused on the present moment) during practice and competition. This coach discussed incorporating new drills in her typical coaching repertoire to help players achieve mindful practice of sport specific skills. Coach 3 purposefully introduced distractions during practice time, "... I would ask them to call out a color or a section. Things were numbered or colored. And they would have to see it, but look at me... and still stay relaxed with all the distractions." Coach 3 observed players demonstrating improvement in tolerating distractions while remaining focused on task relevant cues. In this way, the coach was able to include skill-building exercises in practice related to mindfulness with her adding intentional distractions and concurrently expecting that the athletes remain task focused.

Sub-Theme 4: Heightened awareness of coaches' own emotions and reactions while coaching. Coach 2 discussed how the MMTS program helped increase her awareness of her own emotions and reactions while coaching, preventing a reactionary response to athlete errors. She stated, "Emotion that sort of boils up, when you're frustrated or angry or disappointed [while coaching]. Being able to manage that in the moment-" This statement reflects Coach 2 recognizing the benefit of being able to use her newly acquired mindfulness skills while coaching.

Theme 2: Coaches valuing specific aspects of the MMTS program

The second theme encompasses the coaches' appreciation for the MMTS facilitator and certain structural aspects of the program as well as the coaches' enjoyment of particular activities. Specifically, the coaches noted the facilitator's sincere engagement and willingness to connect with the team. Coaches also commented on specific activities and structural aspects of the MMTS program that were enjoyable and beneficial for coaches as well as athletes.

Sub-theme 1: Valued role of the MMTS facilitator. All three coaches spoke positively about the meditation facilitator's ability to build rapport. Each participant noted that the facilitator had attended one of the team's games during the six-week program and that this choice had a powerful effect on the facilitator's ability to build rapport with the team. Subsequently, the facilitator was able to relate future meditation activities to the team's on-field dynamics and to the team's overall sport experience. Coach 3 said the meditation facilitator attending the game was, "one of the best parts of the program." Coach 1 clearly valued that the meditation facilitator attended a game, noting that he both developed a stronger rapport with the team, and he demonstrated a greater ability to make connections between the formal meditation practice and on the field performance in subsequent sessions. This same coach stated,

. . . that was a critical moment. . . the connection he had with us was greater 'cause . . . he'd been to a game. And then ... he was able to say this is exactly how it can impact you while you are on the field-

Olympic coaches who were more positive about mental skills training professionals working with athletes when the mental skills training professionals showed interest and eagerness to learn about athletes' respective sports, and preparation programs through firsthand observation also was observable in this study when the facilitator attended a soccer game (Partington & Orlick, 1987).

Sub-theme 2: Enjoyed activities and structural aspects of MMTS. All three coaches appreciated specific meditation practices and the logistical execution of the program. Coach 2 enjoyed the four-part focusing activity, which included the meditation facilitator asking coaches and players to shift from one mindfulness activity to another. Specifically, the activity included four mindfulness meditation practices, three minutes each. For this coach, the quick shifts between activities highlighted the importance and benefit of practicing staying focused on the present moment. Two coaches thought that both the length of meditation practice, within each session, and the length of the entire program were appropriate. Coach 2 described liking the length of the program and cautioned against shortening the program to less than six weeks, "You could sort of feel a breakthrough after four weeks because it took practice." The same coach noted how it took some time for all participants to understand both how to practice and to experience some of the benefits of MMTS.

The coaches also spoke favorably about other components that were included throughout the twelve sessions. For example, Coach 1 appreciated that the facilitator would use a lesson plan to lead activities and provided participants with written summaries of each session. These summaries helped guide one coach during her independent practice, ". . . it was good to have that piece of paper to refer to, especially early on, to stay on track."

Two coaches appreciated that the mediation facilitator did not simply lecture about how to meditate; rather the six-week training program allowed participants to engage in various meditation exercises. Coach 2 stated, "It wasn't just theory, it was real practice . . . you can talk all you want and stand up at the board and teach about a subject. . . but we all had a chance to try it. We were meditating." The coach's reflection emphasizes the importance of guided practice when meditation facilitators initially introduce participants to MM practices.

Theme 3: Coaches offering constructive feedback and program recommendations

Theme 3 represents coaches' feedback on how to improve the MMTS program. Some of the coaches' feedback reflected the coaches' recommendation for change regarding when during the day to hold the program sessions, facilitator's involvement, and in the program's structure. All three coaches were hesitant to attribute all team psycho-emotional improvements to the team's participation in the MMTS program.

Sub-theme 1: Time of day, season. The majority of critical comments that the coaches made about the MMTS program pertained to the timing of the program. Generally, the coaches reflected that the program sessions were too late in the day, which was the time the coaching staff chose. The sessions were after practice and weight lifting sessions, during the players' typical dinnertime. Coach 2 reflected, "I really can't think of anything negative except for the timing of when we did it. ..at the end of practice, at the end of lift and we didn't have a break for food . . . the players are hungry and tired . . . ." Coach 3 noted that she would have preferred more than two meditation sessions per week. The coaches also expressed that it would have been more beneficial for players to go through meditation training before practice, as opposed to after practice, for example Coach 3 suggested . . maybe before [training] so the kids can apply it, before training they can [then] go out onto the field and see what he's talking about."

Sub-theme 2: Cautious about attributing all positive changes to MMTS. All three coaches were clear that participation in the program might not have caused directly any positive shifts that they recognized in themselves and their players. They noted that other factors, such as some older players having transitioned off the team by the spring season, might have contributed to the perceived benefits of the MMTS program. Coach 2 stated, "There's lots of factors for [the improvements] . .. it's hard to say what was the cause and effect."

Sub-theme 3: Questioned how program could have been more engaging from the start. Two coaches commented that the experience might have been more effective had some additional steps been taken early in the program. For instance, one coach indicated that too much time may have been spent building an understanding of meditation and that the team could have begun practicing actual meditation exercises earlier in the program. Coach 2 said,

So it's possible we needed to lay the foundation first before we got to that [meditation practice], so that might have had to happen for it to move forward to the next stage, but if not, if maybe that could start earlier.

Coach 1 suggested that having the facilitator observe the team prior to beginning the program could have been helpful because it would have enabled the facilitator to become familiar with the way that the team functioned before interacting with the athletes. Coach 1 suggested that had this happened, the facilitator might have been able to make more connections earlier in the six-week period between the team and the meditation exercises he introduced.

Sub-theme 4: Questioned how to maintain athlete progress post-program. When discussing how the program might be improved, Coach 3 suggested that MMTS include followup activities and questions for athletes to practice what they had learned during the MMTS program. This coach recommended some sort of summer program or set of reminders during the off-season, "Just to keep them engaged." She coach stated that unless MMTS offered support for the players to continue practicing MM, the athletes likely would not continue to practice MM.

Theme 4: Coach identifying athlete benefits from the MMTS program

Theme 4 explores what the coaches perceived as the benefits for the team and themselves through their participation in the MMTS program. Coaches believed the MMTS program provided their athletes with a unique mental skill for handling emotions and helped athletes recover more effectively and efficiently from mistakes. Coaches noted that their athletes benefited from the meditation facilitator helping the players create a caring mantra to motivate and inspire the team during performance. Additionally, the coaches noticed the relationship between themselves and their players deepened.

Sub-theme 1: Viewed MMTS as valuable mental training for athletes. All three coaches indicated that the MMTS program provided an avenue for their players to mentally prepare for competition. Coach 2, while acknowledging that people likely have different views on the exact percentage, said "at least 25 percent" of sport performance is mental, hence the importance of mental training for players. All three coaches spoke directly about the necessity of such mental training for players. Coach 3 noted the value of the MMTS program even if athletes did not continue formal meditation after the conclusion of the program because at the very least the players were exposed to techniques to control their emotions,

I thought there was value in it for them because I think a lot of their success is directly related to their ability to manage their emotions .... It was a way for them to help manage their emotions as athletes.

The coaches also spoke about liking "the idea of it [the program]," noted by Coach 1, meaning that the coaches appreciated that the MMTS program was a unique type of mental training for their athletes. Coach 3 highlighted this sentiment, "I liked the idea of... of giving the players an opportunity to think about their training, and how they get to their peak performance in a different way." This coach also described the importance of adding mental training to the physical and tactical training of practice, "Giving that [mindfulness] skill . . . , opening that up for the players, is huge because some of them really will take that on board and that will really help their game."

Sub-theme 2: Enhanced coach-athlete connection. The coaching staff meditating with athletes deepened the level of closeness that coaches felt with their players. Coach 2 highlighted the unique dynamic, "It wasn't just a coaching staff experiencing it, but I was experiencing it with the players." Also, as the coaches described the program, they used the term "we." The repeated use of the word "we" conveyed the idea that the coaches participating in the program with their players created a sense of "we're all in this together". Coach 2 used the word "we" multiple times when referring to the mantra developed during the meditation program,

When we were all meditating and we were able to visualize and focus on this idea of [the mantra], it was a significant moment for us all because . . . it's like they could apply that immediately ... I think some of them did that, actually practiced in game moments where they could go back to that motto and ... it just stuck.

Sub-theme 3: More efficient emotional recovery from mistakes. Two coaches reported that they observed players being able to better able to recover emotionally from mistakes on the field. Coach 1 speculated that MMTS broadened her players' awareness such that the players learned to more effectively respond emotionally to the given mistakes. Coach 1 stated, "They became more aware of that and they were trying to work on not . . . going to that place. Then chasing the ball to get it back, instead of being angry at themselves for that second or two seconds." Coach 1 reflected, "I saw the difference in [one player's] response. [She] became aware . .. she stopped judging it [her mistakes] as harshly [as usual], which is pretty huge."

Through the MMTS program, coach 3 also reported that some players learned to recognize their immediate negative reactions to mistakes, she stated "they were more aware of what happened to them in that moment. So ... I think that is really positive . . . ." The coach's statement suggests that with players' enhanced awareness that the players had more of a choice in how to react on the field after making a mistake. Coach 1 described how a specific player "was more immediate" following a mistake. Prior to participating in the MMTS program, the coach reported that when the athlete would lose a ball, "her head drops and she doesn't go get it back as fast or at all. And now [post program] you could actually see [observation of athlete's thought process] 'Lost the ball-go get it back!"' This finding is consistent with the athletes' reported experience (Baltzell, Caraballo, Chipman, & Hayden, 2014). Coach 1 felt that the program was particularly beneficial for players who were "super, super hard on themselves."

Sub-theme 4: Statement of care and warmth toward self and teammates. Two of the coaches emphasized that players experience a positive impact from the "mantra", a shared, agreed upon short saying, of athletes wishing themselves and their teammates well. Coaches noted that through the MMTS program, the athletes were able to create this saying, which helped them stay motivated and positive on the field. The coaches further noted that the players embraced this mantra and that using it proved meaningful to the players on numerous levels. Additionally, Coach 2 emphasized the value of having an empowering mantra to reference in sport performance and beyond, ". . . I think [the team's phrase of wishing self and others well] can be useful not only on the field, [it] is a life skill. .. it's an affirmation."

Discussion

MMTS is a mindfulness meditation intervention infused with a compassionate approach to help athletes tolerate emotionally difficult sport moments and to focus on task relevant cues when participating in practice and performance. The coaches reported that both coaches and players benefited from participation in MMTS. The three coaches reported gaining emotional awareness, learning to extend this awareness to players, a changed relationship to aversive emotions (both on and off the field), and provided practical recommendations about what to retain and improve regarding MMTS, in general.

The coaches noted that some of the athletes' experienced an improved relationship with difficult emotions, which Baltzell, Carballo, Chipman, and Hayden (2014) also found in the athlete reported experience. Based on quantitative analysis, the athletes did in fact increase mindfulness as a result of participating in MMTS (Baltzell & LoVerme-Ahktar, 2014). The coaches reported that the athletes were able to reduce reactionary responses with regard to emotions and thoughts that were typically problematic for performance, reflected in sub-theme 3 more efficient emotional recovery from mistakes (of theme 4, perceived athletes' benefits from the MMTS program). The coaches' perceptions were consistent with the athletes' reports of their own experiences (Baltzell et ah, 2014). Similarly, Frewen, Evans, Mara], Dozois, and Partridge (2008) reported that MM study participants experienced a decrease in frequency and intensity of negative thoughts.

Coaches' participation in MMTS contributed to the coaches experiencing more emotional awareness, and more adaptive responses to such emotions when coaching in pressure situations, reflected by sub-theme 4: heightened awareness of coaches' own emotions and reactions while coaching (in Theme 1, coaches' benefits in coaching and life). This finding is of particular interest given that common challenges among coaches include stress and associated aversive emotionally charged responses. Bowden and Yow (2007) reported the negative impacts of coaching stress can sometimes cause them to react emotionally, in an ineffective way, when interacting with their players.

The coaching staff taking part in the MMTS program also seemed to strengthen the coaches' awareness of the psycho-emotional state of their players, reflected in sub-theme increased sensitivity to players. Within the sub-theme, perhaps most importantly for performance, coaches also noticed athletes' ability to recover more quickly from mistakes on the field. Instead of giving up the players would visibly accept disappointment and redirect focus more quickly on the task relevant cues.

The coaches discussed a new appreciation for the issues facing their athletes outside of the sport domain and began considering new ways of interacting with players. Also, coaches felt an enhanced connection to their athletes through their shared participation in the MMTS program. The coaches described the MMTS program as a collective experience, where both coaches and players were learning, facing challenges, and gaining insight together.

Additionally, each of the three coaches noted appreciation for the meditation facilitator. Participants stated feeling that the facilitator was an expert on mindfulness meditation, was relatable, and put a great deal of effort into both teaching the material and getting to know the coaches and athletes. This positive assessment of the facilitator likely influenced the coaches' assessments of the overall program, which is consistent with past research (Partington & Orlick, 1987). The coaches' constructive feedback and suggestions about how the MMTS program included suggestions about how to improve MMTS, with their suggestions primarily focused on future coaches who offer MMTS to their teams to opt to provide the MMTS training prior to practice, avoid offering MMTS during a mealtime, and provide a follow-up support for athletes to continue the mindfulness training beyond the 12 MMTS sessions.

Future Research

Future research is needed that focuses on exposing coaches to mindfulness meditation training, crafted specifically for the coaches only. Such research should examine the impact of mindfulness meditation interventions on coaches' abilities to be mindful on and off the field. It would be valuable to explore whether or not such exposure contributes to reducing the experience of stress for the coach or helps build awareness of internal emotional experience when coaching. We suggest that targeted research should consider how enhancing mindfulness in coaching could, in turn, impact the athletes. We contend that further research should consider the impact on both coaches and players, who participate in a mental training intervention together. We have yet to determine how such joint participation impacts factors such as team cohesion or the relationship between the coaches and the team.

Limitations

The coaches provided generally positive feedback about the MMTS program and noted both the coaches' and their players' improved ability to tolerate aversive emotions and to focus back on task relevant cues. However, we contend that the head coach's preconceived belief in the value of meditation training may have inflated this positive feedback and noted improvements regardless of whether or not the researchers conducted the study. The head coach independently invited the meditation facilitator to work with the team for six-weeks. In addition, the data offers only a snapshot of a case example of how one group of coaches responded to participation in such a program.

Conclusion

This is the first study to examine the experiences of collegiate coaches, who participated in a mindfulness meditation based training for sport program alongside their athletes. These interviews were perhaps one of the first opportunities for coaches to reflect upon and report any potential benefits or difficulties encountered when a sport team and coaches participate in a mindfulness meditation program. The coaches reported benefits of greater self-awareness and enhanced emotional control in their coaching, in their lives outside of sport, and benefits to their athletes - particularly a positively changed relationship to aversive sport-related emotions. Including coaches in a mindfulness-based training program may help to alleviate some job related stress, increase coach sensitivity of their players' emotional experience, and thus, empower them to coach their players more effectively. We recommend that practitioners invite coaches to participate in their mindfulness-based interventions for teams and consider tailoring programs for the coaches.

Sidebar

Discussion Questions

1. The MMTS program consisted of 12 sessions over a 6-week period. When in the athletic season would it be most beneficial for the mindfulness facilitator to hold the sessions (e.g., pre-season, mid-season)? Would it be advantageous for MMTS facilitators to offer the coaches and athletes a refresher course or a check-in meeting on mindfulness? If so, when in the season might this be most useful?

2. Would having the mindfulness facilitator observe the team and coaches before teaching the MMTS program be helpful or beneficial to the coaches and athletes? If so, how long would the observation period need to be? What are the potential advantages or disadvantages to the MMTS facilitator making such athlete or team observations?

3. Athletic trainers spend copious amounts of time with athletes and their coaches. Is there a benefit in including athletic trainers in the MMTS program? Why or why not? Would it be more beneficial to separate their training from the athletes or the coaches? If so, what could the potential benefits of having coach-focused, athlete-focused, and athletic trainer-focused MMTS programs?

To Cite this Article

Baltzell, A., Chipman, K., Hayden, L., & Bowman, C. (2015, Fall). Qualitative study of MMTS: Coaches' experience. Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 7(3), 5-20.

References

References

Aheme, C., Moran, A. P., & Lonsdale, C. (2011). The effect of mindfulness training on athletes' flow: An initial investigation. The Sport Psychologist, 25(2), 177-189.

Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 125-143.

Baltzell, A. L., & Lo Verme-Ahktar, V. (2014). Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS) intervention: Impact of MMTS with Division I female athletes. Journal of Happiness and Well- being, 2(2), 160-173.

Baltzell, A. L., Caraballo, N., Chipman, K., & Hayden, L. (2014). A qualitative study of the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport (MMTS): Division I female soccer players' experience. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 8, 221-244.

Bernier, M. T. E., Codron, R., & Fournier, J. (2009). Mindfulness and acceptance approaches in sport performance. Journal of Clinical Sports Psychology, 4, 320-333.

Bowden, W., & Yow, D. (2007). Stress among women college coaches and their athletes. In James Humphrey (Ed.), Issues in contemporary athletics (pp. 43-52). New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Craft, L., Magyar, T., Becker, B., & Feltz, D. (2003). The relationship between the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and sport performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 25, 44-65.

DePetrillo, L., Kaufman, K., Glass, C., & Amkoff, D. (2009). Mindfulness for long-distance runners: An open trial using mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE). Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 357-376.

Fredrickson, B., Cohn, M., Coffey, K., Pek, J., & Finkei, S. (2008). Open hearts build lives: Positive emotions, induced through loving-kindness meditation, build consequential personal resources. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(5), 1045-1062.

Frey, M., Laguna, P., & Ravizza, K. (2003). Collegiate athletes' mental skills use and perceptions of success: An exploration of the practice and competition settings. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(2), 115-128.

Frewen, P. A., Evans, E., Maraj, N., Dozois, D. J. A., & Partridge, K. (2008). Letting go: Mindfulness and negative automatic thinking. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 32, 758-774.

Gardner, F., & Moore, Z. (2004). A mindfulness-acceptance-commitment based approach to athletic performance enhancement: Theoretical considerations. Behavior Therapy, 35, 707-723.

Gardner, F. L., & Moore, Z. E. (2006). Clinical sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Gardner, F., & Moore, Z. (2007). The psychology of enhancing human performance: The mindfulnessacceptance (MAC) approach. New York, NY: Springer Publishing.

Gardner, F. L., & Moore, Z. E. (2012). Mindfulness and acceptance models in sport psychology: A decade of basic and applied scientific advancements. Canadian Psychology, 53(4), 309' 318.

Gilbert, P. (2011). Shame in psychotherapy and the role of compassion focused therapy. In R. Dearing & J. Tangney (Eds.), Shame in therapy hour (pp. 325'354). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Gilbert, P. (2009). The nature and basis for compassion focused therapy. Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6(20), 273'291.

Hayes, S., Strosahl, K., & Wilson, K. (1999). Acceptance and commitment therapy: An experiential approach to behavior change. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

John, S., Verma, S., & Khanna, G. (2011). The effect of mindfulness meditation on HPA'Axis in pre'Competition stress in sports performance of elite shooters. National Journal of Integrated Research in Medicine, 2(3), 15'21.

Kabat'Zinn, J. (2005). Coming to our senses: Healing ourselves and the world through mindfulness. New York, NY: Hyperion.

Kabat'Zinn, J., Beall, B., & Rippe, J. (1985). A systematic mental training program based on mindfulness meditation to optimize performance in collegiate and Olympic rowers. Poster presented at the World Congress in Sport Psychology, Copenhagen, Denmark.

Kaufman, K., Glass, C., & Amkoff, D. (2009). Evaluation of mindful sport performance enhancement (MSPE): A new approach to promote flow in athletes. Journal of Clinical Sports Psychology, 4, 334-356.

Keng, S. L., Smoski, M. J., & Robin, C. J. (2011). Effects of mindfulness on psychological health: A review of empirical studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 1041'1056. doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2011.04.006

Marlatt, G. A., & Kristeller, J. L. (1999). Mindfulness and meditation. In W. R. Miller (Ed.), Integrating spirituality into treatment (pp. 67'84). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Maynard, I., Smith, M., & Warwick'Evans, L. (1995). The effects of a cognitive intervention strategy on competitive state anxiety and performance in semiprofessional soccer players. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 17, 428'446.

Partington, J., & Orlick, T. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches' views. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 95A02.

Patton, M. (2002). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Salzberg, S. (2011). Mindfulness and loving'kindness. Contemporary Buddhism, 12(1), 177-182. doi: 10.1080/14639947.2011.564837

Schwanhausser, L. (2009). Application of the mindfulness'acceptance'Commitment (MAC) protocol with an adolescent springboard diver. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 4, 377' 395.

Sedlmeier, P., Eberth, J., Schwarz, M., Zimmermann, D., Haarig, F., Jaeger, S., & Kunze, S. (2012). The psychological effects of meditation: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 138(6), 1139'1171.

Siegel, R. (2010). The mindful solution: Everyday practices for everyday problems. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Thelwell, R., Weston, N., Greenlees, I., & Hutchings, N. (2008). A qualitative exploration of psychological skill use in coaches. Tire Sport Psychologist, 22, 38-53.

Voight, M., & Callaghan, J. (2001). The use of sport psychology services at NCAA Division I universities from 1989-1999. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 91-102.

Weinberg, R., & Williams, J. (2006). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In Jean M. Williams (Ed.) Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (pp. 425-457). New York, NY: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Williams, M., Teasdale, J., Segal, Z., & Kabat-Zinn, J. (2007). Guided meditation practices for the mindful way through depression. CD Narrated by Jon Kabat-Zinn. New York, NY: Guilford.