Halal integrity in the food supply chain

Abstract

Purpose

This paper argues that there is an absence of halal integrity within the conventional stages of a food chain. This paper adapts the understanding of the different stages and argues the need to develop a critical consciousness for halal integrity within the food chain to address the needs of the ever-growing Muslim consumers’ market. The purpose of this paper is to propose a definition of halal integrity using farm to fork and global food supply chain models.

Design/methodology/approach

The study includes a review of priori literature and media reports regarding cross-contamination of food products with haram (forbidden) components. This background will be used to conceptualise halal integrity using farm to fork and global supply chain models.

Findings

Different interpretations of halal – what is permitted and what is prohibited – exist for the different schools of Islamic legal thought and within the customs of different countries. In order to ensure that food production is embracive of the religious needs of the global Muslim customer market, this paper utilises the farm to fork and global supply chain models to foster a critical awareness of halal needs. Halal integrity should be clearly presenting the details of the halal status of the product and assuring that the requirements for halal as stated are met. Halal integrity not only deals with permitted and prohibited foods, but that the halal status of the food products (i.e. from raw materials until it reaches the consumers) should not be breached (i.e. no cross-contamination with haram products/methods and no ill intents). A formal definition of halal integrity has been proposed.

Research limitations/implications

The SWOT analyses serve as a guideline as the analysis done may be outdated as the environments are constantly changing.

Originality/value

This research although academic is meant to have a real value in improving the integrity of the halal food supply chain, providing value to the food industry, to countries that are concerned about this supply chain and to Muslim consumers. Halal integrity is crucial to the success of the emerging halal market.

Introduction

Halal is an Arabic phrase for something that is permitted according to Islamic law (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004). These principles extend beyond dietary requirements and underpin all types of human conduct for adherents of the Islamic faith, including beliefs, actions, diet, clothes, modes of earnings, relationships, etc. The term “halal” with reference to food covers all the aspects starting from the farm and ending at the table of a halal observant home. Halal food must be free of any components that Muslims are prohibited from consuming, which is known as haram. Based on Qur’ānic guidance (Qur’an, 2:168, cited in Chandia, 2015), all foods are halal except those that are specifically mentioned as haram. Haram foods can be divided into several main categories, and include any products derived from or contaminated with these prohibited materials, such as, carrion, blood, pig, permitted animals slaughtered incorrectly, and intoxicants. Recently, examples of haram contamination and dishonest behaviour with halal certified products highlight (Table I) areas of concern to Muslim consumers as they are dependent on the food industry and policy makers to assure the integrity of the halal supply chain. Food processors may choose to use pork derivatives, other non-halal slaughtered meats and gelatine to substitute meat products because they are cheap and readily available (Aida et al., 2005). This raises the question of what is halal integrity and what measures can be taken to assure that products are produced and handled with integrity? The paper aims to provide an eclectic appreciation of relevant sources, critically understand their nuances and implications to bridge the needs of halal integrity within the food chain. This is supported by providing a critical independent analysis which presents an ethical framework that is more embracive of the religious needs of more than 1.5 billion (and ever-increasing) people of the world and (arguably) is very pragmatic for both local producers and exporters alike. This paper will attempt to conceptualise the context of halal using the farm to fork and global supply chain models to define halal integrity. The models will assist food manufacturers, food traders and policy makers to ensure the halal integrity of the local and global food supply chains.

Methodology

A desktop review of priori literature and media reports of cross-contamination of halal food products and fraud-related cases were collated to present the data (Table I). The literature research was conducted by using various databases like EBSCO, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis Online and news. Keywords such as pork or porcine detection, halal food, haram and mislabelling were used in the databases. This is followed by a critical independent analysis to conceptualise integrity in the context of halal using a farm to fork model and a global supply chain model. SWOT analyses were carried out to demonstrate the internal (i.e. strengths and weaknesses) and external environments (i.e. opportunities and threats) faced during international halal food trade. The models are then used to define halal integrity.

Halal food supply chain

A halal food supply chain starts with sourcing various permitted raw materials and preparing them accordingly (such as, proper halal slaughter and no cross-contamination with haram products). During all stages of halal production, it is crucial that the food is sourced lawfully, i.e., free from corruption, dishonesty and with no malicious intention (Figure 1). For example, only permitted species are farmed and these halal species do not consume haram feed provided by humans. However, if eaten naturally, then this is not an issue. The schematic diagram highlights the different stages where halal integrity needs to be considered and preserved (Figure 1).

Many of the major stages found in the food supply chain (Soon and Baines, 2013; Soon et al., 2012) are identified below alongside pertinent notions of halal and its impact on that phase.

Agricultural phase

The inputs (such as seedlings, plantlets, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation water, feed and veterinary products) used during this phase need to be sourced and used according to legal requirements. Irrigation water for produce and crops, drinking water in animal husbandry production, and water sources from where aquaculture products are grown/marine products (including freshwater fish) are caught should be safe and not within the vicinity of pig farms or run-off from pig farms.

Slaughtering phase

It is permitted to slaughter animals without stunning to meet Jewish and Muslim religious requirements (EU, 1993). The slaughtering phase is a key stage as differentiation between halal and non-halal meat occurs at this point (Bergeaud-Blackler, 2007). According to Lever and Miele (2012), the practice of religious slaughter in this case addresses the qualification of halal and is comparable to other credence attributes that refer to the method of production rather than the intrinsic characteristics of the product. Hence all operations that occur downstream should guarantee the separation and integrity of halal products (Bergeaud-Blackler, 2007). For halal it is required to use the Islamic method provided that the animals are slaughtered by a Muslim slaughterman. The Muslim slaughter person must be an adult male or female of sound mind familiar with the process of slaughtering. A trained slaughter person will be more efficient and will minimise the damage to the skin and carcass (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004). It is an absolute requirement that animals are slaughtered according to the halal method. The Muslim slaughter person must sever the front part of the neck, severing carotids, jugulars, trachea and esophagus without reaching the bone in the neck while pronouncing the name of god and with a swift blow (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004). It is preferable to turn the animal or bird towards Makkah (Mecca) before slaughtering although this is only a secondary requirement. The slaughtering of ruminants and poultry should preferably be done by hand. It is mandatory to pronounce the name of god while slaughtering the animal. It suffices to say Bismillah (in the name of god) once (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004). However, in general practice, especially for large animals, the slaughter person pronounces the name thrice as Bismillah Allahu Akbar, Bismillah Allahu Akbar (Riaz and Chaudry, 2004).

Processing phase

This often involves two sub-processes – assembling the materials needed and the actual processing of these materials. All ingredients including processing aids and materials used with food contact surfaces as well as the equipment must be halal, sourced legally, safe and used according to legal requirements. Packaging and labelling must be clear and honest (i.e. no adulteration or mislabelling) (Ballin et al., 2009, 2010).

Storage phase

It is important that products are stored and segregated from haram products to avoid cross-contamination. What is acceptable “segregation” is the responsibility of the halal certifying agency. Food packaging (ranging from primary, secondary and tertiary packaging) play a role in ensuring products are kept sealed to reduce potential contamination.

Logistics

Throughout the food supply chain, the logistics service provider plays a crucial role in ensuring that the raw materials, ingredients, packaging materials, storage and transportation of halal products is done so that they do not become contaminated with haram products.

Audit

The traceability of halal products requires proper tracking of the actual product and certification of its halal status by a local Islamic authority and/or a reputable certification body. The drive for profit should not lead to compromising of the halal integrity. Although audit can only provide a snapshot of compliance with halal requirements, it is not feasible for any authority to monitor the whole chain, hence the need to have faith in the wholesomeness of the product (Alqudsi, 2014).

Figure 1 illustrates the application of halal integrity within a food production (i.e. animal husbandry, aquaculture) or processing. However, as the halal food trade and personal travel increases, how can the authenticity of the halal status of a food product be assured?

Halal global supply chain

The question of authenticity is paramount to this debate particularly as the halal food trade and travel increases. The global halal food trade is primarily linked with the rise in the global Muslim population and the increase of transnational trade. In 2010, there were 1.6 billion Muslims with a projected growth to 2.2 billion people by 2030 at an average annual growth of 1.8 per cent (Pew Research Center, 2011). Australia, Canada, Europe and USA are emerging with growing Muslim populations and as major markets for halal trade and consumption (Alqudsi, 2014). The rise in population will undoubtedly boost the growth of the halal consumer market and sales. In 2011, this halal product market was worth a staggering US$2.3 trillion of which just over 50 per cent of the market (US$1.4 trillion) was for food and beverages (Ahmad et al., 2011). To be part of the market can be potentially beneficial for non-Muslim countries to have Halal certification and labelling (Demirci et al., 2016; Ruzevicius, 2012).

With the expected growth of the halal food sector, the issue of global sourcing of raw materials and ingredients will require new efforts to assure halal traceability between countries. This is where traceability, identity preservation techniques and the integrity of the halal certifying bodies can all contribute. As also noted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (1997), the term halal is subjected to different interpretations by the different schools of thought or jurisprudence – particularly Shāf ī, Hanbalī, Mālikī, Hanafī in the Sunni tradition. But they do not differ with respect to haram. The differences between the legal schools of thought revolve around technicalities that must be respected.

It should be noted that there is unanimous agreement regarding what constitutes a most perfect slaughter. This is the requirement for a healthy and alive lawful animal to be slaughtered by a Muslim reciting “In the name of Allah, Allah is the Greatest” cutting all four tubes or vessels – trachea, esophagus and both external jugular veins, although the question of reversible stunning remains controversial. Beyond the extent of permitted reversible stunning, differences exist about the details of which tubes in the neck need to be cut. Imām Shāfi’ī is of the view that it is obligatory to cut the trachea and the esophagus whilst the dominant view of Imām Mālik is to cut into the trachea and both external jugular veins. Imām Ahmad b. Hanbal has two views reported. One stipulates all four tubes being cut and the other is in agreement with Imām Shāfi’ī. Imām Abu Hanīfā is of the opinion that three of the four tubes, irrespective of whichever three, should be cut. To this end, there is also agreement on the cutting point (where the throat meets the upper part of the chest) and the need to cut a minimum of two tubes (Uthmani Mufti, 2005).

Whilst there are differences regarding secondary details, there is agreement on the need to allow blood to first flow out of the live animal (Regenstein et al., 2003; Qu’ran 6:145).

Because of these differences, Kamali (2008) suggested the setting up of an international Shariah advisory forum to develop a leadership role in dealing with this issue and similar issues, and to advise on and resolve areas to minimise differences. These types of international standards may assist in the harmonisation and recognition of halal standards. Whilst it would be helpful to achieve some degree of harmonisation and recognition of halal standards, the practicalities are much more complex and can become politicised to where there is an effort to impose a secular view on the religious communities. An example of such an attempt to tell the religious communities that believe in religious slaughter what to do was an EU funded project. “The religious slaughter: improving knowledge and expertise through dialogue and debate on issues of welfare, legislation and socio-economic aspects” (DIALREL) (2010) was carried out to provide a platform to share and address issues relating to religious slaughter between stakeholders and interested parties in 2006-2010. But, this attempt was not seen as a dialogue rather it was received as a monologue and imposition of secular thought with limited attention given to religious slaughter practices and engagement with religious communities (Regenstein, 2010).

The key to improved halal integrity in international trade is transparency so that consumers can make informed decisions (Alqudsi, 2014; Farouk et al., 2016). The certifying agency located and supervising in one country must clearly define the standards used for any particular product, especially with respect to slaughter. It must also assure that the company/slaughter/products comply with the standard it has announced. In many cases agencies will certify products using different standards for different countries and thus the certifying agencies need to also be sure to maintain product integrity and only send a product to a receiver under a different certifying agency that meets that agency’s standard (Figure 2). Halal standards are used to make halal production more unambiguous (van der Spiegel et al., 2012). Ideally the role of governments as accreditation bodies is to assure that the companies and the certifying agencies are saying what they do and doing what they say. Having governments staying out of certification but focusing on accreditation means that the Muslim citizens in any one country will have access to products that meet their different standards and the certifying agencies can compete to best serve consumers. In practice this generally means that competing certifying agencies tend to help police each other.

There are different interpretations of halal by the different schools of thought and these are modified by the customs of different countries. Figure 2 raises the issue of where a local Islamic authority’s halal certificate is not recognised by an agency in a different country. Even with the adoption of a standardised or benchmarked halal standard, countries or certification bodies may still choose to remain independent. A certification body such as JAKIM from Malaysia recognises 54 certification bodies from 32 countries and four authorities but delisted four certification bodies (Halal Malaysia Official Portal, 2016). But are those rejections based on alternate interpretations of halal, non-compliance with halal requirements, or a political decision? In addition to cross recognition of halal certification bodies, at times local government bodies do not have the resources to carry out inspections globally and are required to outsource responsibilities to Muslim organisations around the world such as Islamic Food Council of Europe and Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America to carry out inspections. This triggers a transnational governmentality on a global scale (Fischer, 2016).

Thus governments are encouraged to take on the accreditation role to strengthen the whole system, while removing themselves from certification. There are attempts to harmonise halal standards which may benefit the food trade and operational efficiency across countries. Analyses of harmonisation or maintaining independent halal standards will result in different strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. SWOT analyses were divided into two categories as in Figure 2 to provide a guideline for countries that opt to select standardised halal standard or choose to have an independent halal standard certification. Countries that opt to use standardised halal standard may benefit from increased cost efficiency and increased food trade. However, there are also threats that there will be reduced variety and freedom of practise according to different schools of thought. Countries that choose to use independent halal standards may benefit from increased competition and the potential to save cost as no benchmarking is required. Meanwhile, although independent halal standards ensure the freedom to adopt halal practices according to their school of thought (and the country’s tradition), a reduction in food trade and lack of food choices may prevail. Hence, Figure 2 is presented as a global halal supply chain model to provide pragmatic information for countries or certification bodies to better serve Muslims with different traditions. However, the SWOT analyses serve as a guideline as Ab Talib and Abdul Hamid (2014) reported that SWOT analysis done may be outdated as the environments are constantly changing. In addition to relying on halal standards and certification, laboratory analyses can be used to monitor specific haram ingredients in raw materials and food products such as the presence of porcine and alcohol (van der Spiegel et al., 2012), identification of animal species in food (Aida et al., 2005, 2007) and origin of food product (Ebeler, 2007). According to Fauzi and Mas’ud (2009) scientific justification and results of laboratory analyses can provide additional information for local and regional Islamic authorities to evaluate the halal status of the products.

One step to better cooperation but while maintaining minor differences related to the schools are the halal standard developed by the Turkish Halal Certification Centre (GIMDES) that incorporates different schools of Islamic law. A tick (✓) image in the logo can be added beside the appropriate schools of law (i.e. Shāf ī, Hanbalī, Mālikī, Hanafī) according to which rules the certified company has complied (Figure 3). The certification can represent one or even all of the schools of law (GIMDES, 2015). But given that Turkey is predominantly a Sunni country, to date this form of certification does not address the Shi’a schools. It also implies that the application of standards by schools is sufficient. In some cases, where fish are considered halal, it is apparent that there are also different customs in different countries that reflect the different schools but lead to differences within each school.

Malaysia recognises the significance of halal assurance of food and consumer products produced globally. It currently accepts products and premises certified by a number of Islamic certification bodies and authorities. Globally, JAKIM recognises 54 foreign halal certification bodies (Halal Malaysia Official Portal, 2016). Additionally, JAKIM recognises four national authorities that will be able to provide guidance for consumers when purchasing halal goods or patronising certain premises overseas (Halal Malaysia Official Portal, 2016). It should be noted that Malaysia is one of the few Muslim countries that recognises percussive stunning as acceptable for reversible stunning (Halal Malaysia Official Portal, 2016).

Halal integrity

A farm to fork food supply chain is not only concerned about food but also the origin, transparency, potential for fraud and adulteration, increasing consumers’ confidence, traceability (traceback and track forward) and quality issues (Hoorfar et al., 2011). Manning and Soon (2014) suggested that the term food integrity should be used to describe foods that are properly represented for exactly what they are. So halal integrity would be again clearly presenting the details of the halal status of the product and assuring that the requirements for halal as stated are met. Food safety is part of halal integrity as wholesomeness (tayyab) is a parallel requirement for halal, i.e., food should be pure, lawful and good for human consumption. Zulfakar et al. (2014) proposed a conceptual framework for halal food supply chain integrity which encompasses protective and preventive measures to ensure food products remain halal from production until they reach consumers. Halal integrity should also demonstrate that the product remain halal throughout the supply chain, are free from any activities that might breached the halal status (intentionally or unintentionally) (Zulfakar et al., 2012). Others are proposing more specific halal control points (Kohilavani et al., 2012, 2013), control points for halal slaughtering of poultry (Shahdan et al., 2016) and halal compliance critical control point (Kamaruddin et al., 2012) for various production systems. There are certainly challenges in ensuring halal integrity in the food supply chain as production, processing and transportation require different companies at various stages. Alqudsi (2014) had reported that it is a difficult task to maintain halal integrity of the whole supply chain as it requires constant monitoring and resources in terms of capital and trained staff. However, the demand for halal food products from consumers and the drive from the supply side theory of religion (i.e. expansion of halal markets because of production sides’ initiative in creating more halal food) will spur the need to ensure halal food status is maintained. Halal certification bodies play an important role in certifying halal food products and services whilst governments should play an active role as accreditation bodies or to provide independent validation in order to police the halal food chain. If halal integrity is maintained across the supply chain regardless of whether the chain is within one country or multiple countries, then one will have a global halal supply chain with integrity (Figure 2). Halal integrity is crucial to the success of the emerging halal market. A formal definition of halal integrity might be articulated as:

[…] the assurance of safe (pure), quality (good) and free from mal-practice (lawful) food from farm to fork.

Conclusion

The ideas of halal and haram are clear within Islamic teachings. It is important also to understand that halal is a way of life and embraces good conduct and righteous deeds. It is in this context that halal integrity should be understood. This paper utilises the farm to fork and global supply chain models to foster a critical awareness of halal needs. Taking into consideration the origins of food products, production and facilities, global sourcing of ingredients and raw materials, food trade and halal as a way of life leads to a definition of halal integrity. SWOT analyses serve as a guideline for countries that opt to select standardised halal standard or choose to have an independent halal standard certification. Countries that opt to use standardised halal standard may benefit from increased cost efficiency and increased food trade while countries that choose to use independent halal standards may benefit from increased competition and the potential to save cost as no benchmarking is required. It is recommended that the key to improved halal integrity in international trade is transparency and required concerted effort from food supply chains, policy makers, halal certification and accreditation bodies and research institutions. Halal integrity is crucial to the success of halal market – if the halal status of the food product is breached (e.g. did not follow halal slaughtering method, cross-contamination with haram products, ill intentions), this will render the product haram. In response to the initial questions raised in this paper, i.e., what is halal integrity and what measures can be taken to assure this – a formal definition of halal integrity has been proposed.

Figure 1

Halal integrity from farm to fork

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Figure 2

Assuring global halal integrity via recognised halal certification bodies

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Figure 3

Example of a Halal certification that incorporates different schools of Sunni Islamic law

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Table I

Examples of food cross-contamination with porcine products and mislabelling cases

Year	Location	Item	Contaminant	References
2000	Mexico	Sausages and burger patties	Undeclared porcine species meat products	Flores-Munguia et al. (2000)
2005	Italy	Horse meat sausages	Pork meat was added fraudulently in Italian horse fresh sausages	Di Pinto et al. (2005)
2011	Iran	Halal meats	Unlawful (adulterated) meats containing poultry, pig, donkey and horse meat	Doosti et al. (2011)
2013	South Africa	Minced meat, burger patties, deli meats, sausages and biltongs	Detection of porcine DNA in various meat products	Cawthorn et al. (2013)
2013	UK	Meat pies and pastries	Porcine DNA	Whitworth (2013)
2013	UK	Frozen burgers	Porcine DNA	Whitworth (2013)
2013	UK	Lamb burgers	Traces of pork	BBC News (2013a)
2013	UK	Vaccine	Pork gelatin	BBC News (2013b)
2013	US	Chicken sandwich	Mislabelled as halal	Trenwith (2013)
2013	China	Homemade food products	Mislabelled as halal	Lipes (2013)
2013	Hungary	Pork tenderloins	Pork tenderloins labelled as beef tenderloins	Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (2013)
2013	Portugal	Poultry meat	Possible cross contamination of poultry meat products with pork meat	Soares et al. (2013)
2014	EU	Packaged chicken sausages	Mislabelled	Bottaro et al. (2014)
2014	Turkey	Gelatine products (marshmallow and gum drops)	Products contain porcine gelatine and labelling failed to indicate the use of pork gelatine	Demirhan et al. (2012)
2015	UK	Halal slaughter house	Not following halal practices in the slaughtering process	Press Association (2015)
2015	Italy	Chicken sausages	Detection of pork DNA in chicken sausages	Di Pinto et al. (2015)
2016	Spain	Marshmallows, gummies, hard candies and complex candies	Detection of porcine DNA in commercial candy products	Muñoz-Colmenero et al. (2016)