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Abstract
This article critically examines recent literature on stress among Hong Kong youth in order to clarify misconceptions about its nature and function, to examine some of the main sources of stress among youth in Hong Kong, to illustrate an alternative perspective of stress-related problems in terms of 'protective factors' rather than 'stressors,' to present the influence of culture on perceived protective factors (e.g., hardiness, locus of control and self-efficacy, gender differences, problem solving skills, coping skills, and social support), to increase knowledge about culturally sensitive approaches, and to suggest directions for future lines of research.
Keywords: Stress among youth, school stress, coping, Hong Kong, students
Introduction
Several authors have remarked on the difficulty of reaching a precise definition of stress (1, 2). Generally, it is accepted that "stress occurs when an individual perceives that environmental demands tax or exceed his or her adaptive capacity" (3). Stress is a subjective experience that may or may not correspond to behavioral, cognitive, physiological, and/or emotional responses (4). Hans Hugo Bruno Selye (1907-1982), endocrinologist, is considered 'the father of stress,' as he is the one who popularized the concept of stress. He defined stress as "the nonspecific response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions" (5). Originally, the stress response was shown to be useful for the system (from a medical perspective), and for the person to adapt to changes; however, a tendency to emphasize its dangers has finally prevailed, so that its original function is often forgotten (6). Today, stress is normally understood as something negative, as a condition to overcome; however, it is difficult to imagine a condition free of any tension. Indeed, as Selye clearly states: "stress is not something to be avoided. Indeed, it cannot be avoided, since just staying alive creates some demand for life-maintaining energy. Even when man is asleep, his heart, respiratory apparatus, digestive tract, nervous system, and other organs must continue to function. Complete freedom from stress can be expected only after death" (7).
Stress in adolescence
Existing literature examines several types of stressors that children and adolescents may experience, like personal illness (8), pain (9), parental or family conflict (10), family economic burden (11), parental divorce (12),...