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1. Introduction
The progression of climate change is notable in Australia, where the mean surface air temperatures, sea-level rise, and ocean acidification are projected to continue on an upward trajectory [1]. Australia’s climate has warmed by around 1 °C since 1910, and over the past 15 years, the frequency of very warm months has increased five-fold, with more hot days and fewer cool days predicted [1].
One of the 17 goals of The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts [2]. Climate change impacts directly and indirectly on human health, as shown in several Australian studies [3,4]. Substantial heat-related morbidity and mortality have been reported in association with extreme heatwaves [5,6,7,8,9,10], and air pollution events due to bushfires and dust storms have been associated with mortality and increased hospitalizations [11,12]. These events are predicted to increase with climate change [13,14,15]. A changing climate can also affect the transmission of climate-sensitive mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue fever and Ross River virus disease [16,17,18], in addition to food-borne diseases such as salmonellosis [19,20,21].
Health-related climate change indicators are quantitative measures to monitor the effects of climate change on population health [22] and should be based on a sound link between the exposure to environmental hazards and human health effects [23]. Studies have noted aims to track health effects of climate change using several indicators such as excess morbidity and mortality due to extreme heat; number of injury, death, and mental health outcomes due to extreme weather events including floods and droughts; cases of environmental infectious diseases; and health outcomes related to air pollution and aeroallergens [22,24,25]. These indicators can also be used to assess the effectiveness of public health adaptation strategies and plans. For example, health-related indicators developed in 51 member states of the World Health Organization (WHO) in Europe have had important implications in evaluating heat preparedness planning in the region [26].
At present, in Australia, indicators of environmental change are distinct and separate from indicators of health. The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) are currently using climate data such as temperature and rainfall to monitor the state of the climate and to predict how climate is...