Household energy and recycling of nutrients and carbon to the soil in integrated crop-livestock farming systems: a case study in Kumbursa village, Central Highlands of Ethiopia

Abstract

Soil amendment with organic wastes in the Highlands of Ethiopia has been greatly reduced by widespread use of dung cakes and crop residues as fuels. This study assessed the interaction between household energy and recycling of nutrients and carbon to the soil using household survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, direct observations and measurements between 2014 and 2015 in Kumbursa village (Central Highlands of Ethiopia). All surveyed households were entirely dependent on biomass fuel for cooking, with production and consumption rates directly related to wealth status, which significantly varied (P < 0.001) among three farm wealth groups (poor, medium and rich). Crop residues and dung cakes accounted for 80(±3)% by energy content and 85(±4)% by dry mass weight of total biomass fuel consumption. Mean losses were 59(±2) kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ nitrogen (109(±8) kg yr⁻¹ per household), 13.9(±0.3) kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ phosphorus (26(±2) kg yr⁻¹ per household), 79(±2) kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ potassium (150(±11) kg yr⁻¹ per household) and 2100(±40) kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ organic carbon (3000(±300) kg yr⁻¹ per household). Rich farmers lost significantly more carbon and nutrients in fuel than farmers in other wealth groups. However, these losses were spread over a larger area, so losses per land area were significantly higher for medium and poor than for rich farmers. This means that the land of poorer farmers is likely to become degraded more rapidly due to fuel limitations than that of rich farmers, so increasing the poverty gap. The estimated financial loss per household due to not using dung and crop residues as organic fertilizer was 162(±8) US$ yr⁻¹. However, this is less than their value as fuels, which was 490(±20) US$ yr⁻¹. Therefore, farmers will only be persuaded to use these valuable assets as soil improvers if an alternative, cheaper fuel source can be found.

References Abebe D, Koch FS, Alemu M (2011) Coping with Fuel Wood Scarcity: Household Responses in Rural Ethiopia. Department of Economics Working Paper Series, University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Abebe N, Kuyper TW, de Neergaard A (2015) Agricultural waste utilization strategies and demand for urban waste compost: Evidence from smallholder farmers in Ethiopia. Waste Management, 44, 82–93. Adugnaw B (2014) Environmental degradation and management in Ethiopian highlands: Review of lessons learned, Debre Tabor University, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia. Available at: http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijepp (accessed 08 July 2015). Aklilu A (2006) Caring for the Land: Best Practices in Soil and Water Conservation in Beressa Watershed, Highlands of Ethiopia. PhD Dissertation, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Alemu M, Kohlin G (2008) Biomass consumption and dung as manure: evidence from rural households in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. Environment for Development Discussion Paper Series, EfD DP 08-17, Gothenburg, Sweden. Available at: http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/EfD-DP-08-17.pdf (accessed 14 July 2016). Anderson MJ, Ingram JS (1993) Tropical Biology and Fertility: A Handbook of Methods, 2nd edn. Wallingford, UK, CAB International. Assefa A, van Keulen H, Mitiku H, Oosting SJ (2007) Nutrient dynamics on smallholder farms in Teghane, Northern Highlands of Ethiopia. In: Advances in Integrated Soil Fertility Management in sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and Opportunities (eds Bationo A, Waswa B, Kihara J, Kimetu J) pp. (365–378) Springer, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Avery LM, Yongabi K, Tumwesige V, Strachan N, Goude PJ (2014) Potential for pathogen reduction in anaerobic digestion and biogas generation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Biomass and Bioenergy, 70, 112–124. Badege B (2001) Deforestation and Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands: A Strategy for Physical Recovery. Paper presented at International Conference on Contemporary Development Issues 16 – 18 August, 2001, Michigan, Kalamazoo, U.S.A. Balesh T (2005) Integrated Plant Nutrient Management in Crop Production in the Central Ethiopian Highlands. Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Norway. Bayeh B (2010) Assessment of bread wheat production, marketing and selection of N-efficient bread wheat (Tritium aestivum L.) varieties for higher grain yield and quality in North Western Ethiopia. PhD thesis, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia. Available at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/3614 (accessed 14 July 2016). Dagninet A, Endeblhatu A, Awole M (2015) Enhancing biomass energy efficiency in rural households of Ethiopia. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources, 4, 27–33. Dawit GD (2012) Assessment of biomass fuel resource potential and utilization in Ethiopia: sourcing strategies for renewable energies. International journal of renewable energy research, 2, 131–139. Available at: http://cleancookingstoves.org/resources_files/assessment-biomass-fuel-resource.pdf (accessed 14/07/16). Debela H (2007) Human influence and threat to biodiversity and sustainable living. Ethiopian Journal of Educational Science, 3, 86–95. Drost AE (2011) Validity and Reliability in Social Science Research, Educational Research and Perspectives. Vol. 38, No 1, California State University, Los Angeles. EARO [Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization] (2001) Narrowing the rift: Teff research and development. Proceedings of the “International workshop on Teff Genetics and Improvement”, 16-19 October, 2000, Debrezeit, Ethiopia. Elizabeth D, DeVries B, Herold M, Verchot L, Muller R (2014) Fuelwood savings and carbon emission reductions by the use of improved cooking stoves in an Afromontane forest, Ethiopia. Land, 3, 1137–1157. EUEI [European Union Energy Initiative] (2013) Biomass energy strategy Ethiopia. Energy for development, Policy Paper, Eschborn, Germany. FDRE [Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia] (2011) Ethiopia's Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE). Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Fekadu G (2015) Forest loss and climate change in Ethiopia. Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management, 4, 216–224. Getamesay B, Workneh N, Getachew E (2015) Energy poverty in Addis Ababa city. Ethiopian Journal Economics and Sustainable Development, 6, 26–34. Gryseels G (1988) Role of livestock on mixed smallholder farms in the Ethiopian highlands. A case study from the Baso and WorenaWereda near DebreBerhan. Ph.D. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Gudina T, Nonhebel S (2015) Bio-wastes as an alternative household cooking energy source in Ethiopia. Energies, 8, 1965–1983. Gwavuya SG, Abele S, Barfuss I, Zeller M, Muller J (2012) Household energy economics in rural Ethiopia: A cost-benefit analysis of biogas energy. Renewable Energy, 48, 202–209. Hailemariam T (2011) The impact of shadow price and farmers’ impatience on the allocation of a multipurpose resource in Ethiopia. The 13th Annual BIOECON Conference “Resource Economics, Biodiversity Conservation and Development”, September 2011. Idiata DJ, Ebiogbe M, Oriakhi H, Iyalekhue H (2013) Wood fuel usage and the challenges on the environment. International Journals of Engineering Sciences, 2, 110–114. IEA (2014) Africa energy outlook: a focus on energy prospects in SSA, World Energy Outlook Special Report. Available at: https://www.iea.org (accessed 17/02/13). IFPRI (2010) Fertilizer and Soil Fertility Potential in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities for Enhancing the System. Working paper. International Food Research Institute, Nairobi. INFORSE (2006) International network for sustainable energy, manual on sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction in South Asia. Available at: http://www.inforse.org/asia/ (accessed 12 April 2015). Jan I, Khan H, Hayat S (2012) Determinants of rural household energy choices: an example from Pakistan. Policy journal of environmental Studies, 21, 635–641. Kassahun B, Hager H, Mekonnen K (2013) Woody and non-woody biomass utilization for fuel and implications on plant nutrients availability in Mukehantuta Watershed in Ethiopia. African Crop Science Journal, 21, 625–636. Ketema S (1997) Teff. Eragrostisteff (Zucc.) trotter: Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops, International Plant Genetics Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, Available at: http://www.bioversityinternational.org/uploads/tx_news/Teff_Eragrostis_teff_Zucc_Trotter_279.pdf (accessed 14 July 2016). Masera OR, Saatkamp BD, Kammen DM (2000) From linear fuel switching to multiple cooking strategies: a critique and alternative to the energy ladder model. World Development, 28, 2083–2103. Mathew OO, Sola AF, Oladiran BH, Amos AA (2013) Efficiency of Neyman allocation procedure over other allocation procedures in stratified random sampling. Am J Theo Appl Stat, 2, 122–127. Available at: http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajtas.20130205.12.pdf (accessed 14/07/16). Minase NA, Masafu MM, Geda AE, Wolde T (2015) Impact of tillage type and soil texture to soil organic carbon storage: the case of Ethiopian smallholder farms. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 11, 1126–1133. Mulu MG, Belay S, Getachew E, Tilahun WS (2016) The environmental benefits of domestic biogas technology in rural Ethiopia. Biomass and Bioenergy, 90, 131–138. Ogwumike OF, Ozughalu MU, Abiona AG (2014) Household energy use and determinants: Evidence from Nigeria. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 4, 248–262. Available at : www.econjournals.com. Onoja O, Anthony IO (2012) Econometric analysis of factors influencing fuel wood demand in rural and peri-urban farm households of Kogi State. The Journal of Sustainable Development Policy, 8, 115–127. Remigios VM (2014) The Significance of Culture as a Household Energy Determinant: The Case of Chiwundura Communal Area, Zimbabwe. Fort Hare Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Fort Hare. Risseeuw N (2012) Household Energy in Mozambique: A Study on the Socioeconomic and Cultural Determinants of Stove and Fuel Transitions. VrijeUniversiteit, Faculteit der AardLevenswetenschappen. Sahlemedhin S, Taye B (2000) Procedures for soil and plant analysis: Technical Paper No. 74. National Soil Research Center and Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, Addis Ababa. Samuel FG (2002) Household's Consumption Pattern and Demand for Energy in Urban Ethiopia. University of Alberta, Canada. SEI [Stockholm Environment Institute] (2008) Market Barriers to Clean Cooking Fuels in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Literature. An SEI Working paper, Stockholm, Sweden. Available at: www.sei.se. SEI [Stockholm Environment Initiative] (2015) The SEI Initiative on the Water. Energy and Food Nexus, Stockholm Environment Institute, Stockholm. Semple S, Apsley A, Wushishu A, Smith JU (2014) Commentary: Switching to biogas -what effect could it have on indoor air quality and human health? Biomass and Bioenergy, 70, 125–129. Smith JU, Abegaz A, Matthews R, et al. (2014) What is the potential for biogas digesters to improve soil fertility and crop production in Sub-Saharan Africa? Biomass and Bioenergy, 70, 58–72. Subedi M, Matthews R, Pogson M, et al. (2014) Can biogas digesters help to reduce deforestation in Africa? Biomass and Bioenergy, 70, 87–98. Tilahun G, Mekibeb F, Asnake F, Million E (2015) Genotype x environment interaction and stability analysis for yield and yield related traits of Kabuli-type chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. in Ethiopia. African Journal of Biotechnology, 14, 1564–1575. Treiber UM (2012) Fuel and stove diversification in the light of energy transition and technology adoption theory. Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Norway. Available at: http://www.umb.no/noragric. Woldeamlak B (2003) Towards integrated watershed management in Highland Ethiopia: the Chemoga Watershed case study. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen. Wolde-Giorgis W (2002) Renewable energy for rural development in Ethiopia: the case for new energy policies and institutional reform. Energy Policy, 30, 1095–1105. Yongabi K, Avery ML, Pertiwiningrum A (2014) A commentary on occupational infectious diseases due to agricultural practices in Sub-Saharan Africa. Biomass and Bioenergy, 70, 99–111. Zenebe G, Van Kooten GC, Van Sost DP (2006) Land degradation in Ethiopia: What do stoves have to do with it? Contributed paper for presentation at the international association of Agricultural Economists Conference, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.