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Introduction
According to the conventional wisdom, nationalism is the "preponderant factor in modern history."1 Specifically, "there can be no doubt that the most pervasive and dynamic ideological force in nineteenthcentury Europe was nationalism."2 The Eastern Crisis of 1875-78 is seen as an integral part of this Europe-wide phenomenon. The beginnings of Balkan nationalism are attributed to the French Revolution.3 The rise of Balkan nationalism is seen as an increasing threat to the Ottoman Empire's Balkan domain.4 It is claimed that "at bottom, the whole problem of the Balkans was at this time...a national and racial one."5 Indeed, "what distinguished this from earlier Eastern crises was the nationalist factor" since "eastern Europe was being swept by the rising tide of national feeling."6
This applied as much to Russia7 and Turkey,8 and it did to the South Slav movement which "was a true national revival, a translation into Balkan terms of the spirit which had brought Italy and Germany into being."9 It has been suggested that the crisis caused a "revolution in international affairs" and even contributed to the outbreak of World War I.10 In short, Balkan nationalism was a critical determinant of the crisis and the crisis is a prime example of nationalism's power.
This paper scrutinizes these views. It begins by reconsidering the nature and influence of Balkan nationalism. After examining the general objectives of the Great Powers, it concludes by tracing the implementation of these policies during the crisis as a means of evaluating the role of Balkan and Great Power nationalism in the outcome.
To evaluate the role of nationalism, a definition is essential. The concept is, however, notoriously difficult to define.ll Definitions can be roughly divided into descriptive, prescriptive, and affective. Descriptive definitions establish broad characteristics of the phenomenon.l2 Prescriptive definitions focus on the aspirations of nationalists.13 Affective definitions are concerned with the influence of nationalism on the course of events and is the approach applied here. Nationalism is taken to be mass aggressive behavior related to the nation. Accordingly, the pursuit of aggressive objectives by governments and/or narrow ruling elites is merely aggressive policy rather than nationalism. Conversely, mass pursuit of defensive goals is viewed as defensive patriotism rather than nationalism. Thus, nationalism is a new and significant element in the...