The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965) intends to measure a single dominant factor representing global self-esteem. However, several studies have identified some form of multidimensionality for the RSES. Therefore, we examined the factor structure of the RSES with a fixed-effects meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach including 113 independent samples (N = 140,671). A confirmatory bifactor model with specific factors for positively and negatively worded items and a general self-esteem factor fitted best. However, the general factor captured most of the explained common variance in the RSES, whereas the specific factors accounted for less than 15%. The general factor loadings were invariant across samples from the United States and other highly individualistic countries, but lower for less individualistic countries. Thus, although the RSES essentially represents a unidimensional scale, cross-cultural comparisons might not be justified because the cultural background of the respondents affects the interpretation of the items.

More than 50 years of research and hundreds of empirical studies have failed to solve the dispute surrounding the dimensionality of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Originally, Rosenberg (1965) considered self-esteem a unitary construct reflecting individual differences in the evaluation of one’s self-worth and self-respect. In empirical studies, however, several researchers highlighted the need to acknowledge between one and four secondary dimensions, in addition to general self-esteem, to properly model responses to the RSES (e.g., Alessandri, Vecchione, Eisenberg, & Łaguna, 2015;