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Studies into workplace bullying prevalence rates show that it exists throughout all organisational levels (Kalliath and Kalliath, 2012; Zapf et al. , 2010), including managers being bullied by their staff members (Branch et al. , 2007b). "Upwards bullying" sees managers "put into a position in which they cannot defend themselves" (Salin, 2001, p. 435). To date, workplace bullying research has focussed predominantly on managers and peers as the main perpetrators (e.g. Schat et al. , 2006) and little attention has been paid to upwards bullying where managers are the targets. However, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon, all forms of workplace bullying should be described and examined. Indeed, recent research on upwards bullying indicates its complexity and importance, including its links to individual and organisational effectiveness (Branch et al. , 2007a, 2013; Shallcross et al. , 2010). In one of the first explorations of the contributing factors to upwards bullying, Branch et al . (2007b) found the work environment, including change occurring within the workplace and power processes, to be particularly important.
Power is a central concept in the definition of workplace bullying, as without an imbalance of power, behaviours would not be considered "bullying" behaviours (Berlingieri, 2015; Branch, 2008). In organisations, power is usually conceived to operate within a hierarchical structure, prevailing at the top and diminishing down the chain-of-command. This approach is also reflected in the research investigating workplace bullying from a top-down perspective (Zapf et al. , 2010), with bullying assumed to be directed downwards according to formal hierarchical power expectations. By contrast, in cases of upwards bullying, staff members gain power that is mostly derived from informal structures and interpersonal processes (Branch et al. , 2007a, b), thus creating perceived power imbalances in the organisation.
Extensive research on the impact upwards bullying had on the target was conducted by Branch (2006). The participants reported a number of physical and psychological impacts from their experiences, including general ill health, shingles, migraines, sleeplessness, anxiety, and high levels of stress. Two participants were diagnosed with clinical depression while another reported a nervous breakdown. The participants also reported a loss in confidence both in themselves and their ability to conduct their job, concerns for safety, and higher intention of leaving the workplace....