Developing the theory of formative assessment

Educ Asse Eval Acc (2009) 21:531

DOI 10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5

Paul Black & Dylan Wiliam

Received: 18 September 2008 /Accepted: 30 December 2008 / Published online: 23 January 2009# Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009

Abstract Whilst many definitions of formative assessment have been offered, there is no clear rationale to define and delimit it within broader theories of pedagogy. This paper aims to offer such a rationale, within a framework which can also unify the diverse set of practices which have been described as formative. The analysis is used to relate formative assessment both to other pedagogic initiatives, notably cognitive acceleration and dynamic assessment, and to some of the existing literature on models of self-regulated learning and on classroom discourse. This framework should indicate potentially fruitful lines for further enquiry, whilst at the same time opening up new ways of helping teachers to implement formative practices more effectively.

Keywords Formative assessment . Assessment for learning . Dynamic assessment . Self-regulation . Instruction . Pedagogy. Cognitive acceleration . Dialogue

1 Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to develop the theory of formative assessment beyond the stage reached in our earlier writing, drawing on a variety of sources in the literature that have addressed this issue, whether directly or obliquely. Our earliest work on formative assessment (Black and Wiliam 1998a, b) did not start from any pre-defined theoretical base but instead drew together a wide range of research findings relevant to the notion of formative assessment. Work with teachers to explore the practical applications of lessons distilled therefrom (Black et al. 2002,

P. Black (*)

Department of Education and Professional Studies, Kings College London, Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, UK e-mail: [email protected]

D. Wiliam

Institute of Education, University of London, London, UK

Developing the theory of formative assessment

6 Educ Asse Eval Acc (2009) 21:531

2003) led to a set of advisory practices that were presented on a pragmatic basis, with a nascent but only vaguely outlined underlying unity. So our first aim in this paper is to provide a unifying basis for the diverse practices which are said to be formative.

Subsequently, (Black and Wiliam 2006) we explored the changes that occurred in the classrooms of teachers developing formative assessment, and...