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INTRODUCTION
Research on complex sentences in English first language (L1) acquisition shows that input factors and cognitive or conceptual maturity play a role in development (Diessel, 2004; Huttenlocher, Waterfall, Vasilyeva, Vevea, & Hedges, 2010; Vasilyeva, Waterfall, & Huttenlocher, 2008). This is significant because, while vocabulary acquisition is expected to be largely input driven and sensitive to cognitive factors across theoretical frameworks, generative and constructivist theories differ regarding the expected role of input and cognitive factors in the acquisition of syntax (Vasilyeva et al., 2008). Regarding child second language (cL2) acquisition, morphological acquisition has received more attention than the development of syntax. Furthermore, existing studies on cL2 complex syntax examine comprehension rather than production (e.g., Unsworth, 2016). Consequently, the developmental patterns and mechanisms of syntactic production in cL2 learners of English are largely unknown. The goal of this study was to examine complex sentence production in cL2 learners (cL2ers) of English using parallel methods to existing L1 acquisition studies.
The outcomes of this study have both theoretical and applied relevance. First, comparisons between L1 and cL2 acquisition of complex syntax would contribute to debates about the role of age in cL2 acquisition. On one hand, older age of acquisition is often construed as a limiting factor in ultimate attainment for L2 morphosyntax (Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009; Paradis, Tulpar, & Arppe, 2016; Unsworth, 2016). On the other hand, an older age of acquisition onset means children are more cognitively and linguistically mature when they are learning a target construction, and research shows that older age of acquisition within early childhood can result in a faster rate of L2 morphosyntactic development (Blom & Bosma, 2016; Paradis, 2011; Paradis & Jia, 2016; Paradis, Rice, Crago, & Marquis, 2008). Second, research on cL2 acquisition of complex syntax would contribute to theoretical accounts regarding the mechanisms underlying cL2 acquisition. Unsworth (2016) argued that different learning mechanisms, including the role of input factors, underlie Dutch L2 children's acquisition of morphology versus syntax-semantics, taking a generative perspective. In contrast, a constructivist perspective would predict parallel learning mechanisms for L2 vocabulary, morphology, and syntax (Paradis, 2011; Paradis & Jia, 2016). Finally, research on cL2 acquisition of complex syntax would be relevant to educational concerns...