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Introduction
Humans are increasingly disconnected from nature. Most people—over half globally, and approximately four in five Americans—live in urban areas, where nature contact is typically limited (United Nations 2015). Surveys reveal that Americans spend >90% of their time indoors: most of that time is spent in buildings, and a smaller portion in vehicles (Klepeis et al. 2001). Screen time has reached daily averages of 1 h 55 min for children younger than 8 y old (Rideout 2013) and 7 h 38 min for those between 8 and 18 y old (Rideout et al. 2010). In 2016, the average “total media consumption” was 10 h 39 min per day among adults and was rising (Nielsen 2016). Park visitation, hunting, fishing, camping, and children’s outdoor play have all declined substantially over recent decades (Clements 2004; Frost 2010; Pergams and Zaradic 2008).
In this context, recent years have seen a blossoming of scientific interest in the benefits of nature contact for human health and well-being. Several recent reviews have summarized and evaluated the growing evidence base (Bowler et al. 2010; Hartig et al. 2014; James et al. 2015; Lee and Maheswaran 2011; Martens and Bauer 2013; Russell et al. 2013; Seymour 2016). This literature reveals an extraordinarily broad range of benefits, albeit with varying levels of evidentiary support (Table 1).
No. | Health/well-being benefits | References |
---|---|---|
1 | Reduced stress | Berto 2014; Fan et al. 2011; Nielsen and Hansen 2007; Stigsdotter et al. 2010; van den Berg and Custers 2011; van den Berg et al. 2010; Ward Thompson et al. 2016 |
2 | Better sleep | Astell-Burt et al. 2013; Grigsby-Toussaint et al. 2015; Morita et al. 2011 |
3 | Improved mental health: | |
Reduced depression | Astell-Burt et al. 2014c; Beyer et al. 2014; Cohen-Cline et al. 2015; Gascon et al. 2015; Kim et al. 2009; Maas et al. 2009b; McEachan et al. 2016; Nutsford et al. 2013; Sturm and Cohen 2014; Taylor et al. 2015; White et al. 2013 | |
Reduced anxiety | Beyer et al. 2014; Bratman et al. 2015a; Maas et al. 2009b; Nutsford et al. 2013; Song et al. 2013; Song et al. 2015 | |
4 | Greater happiness, well-being, life satisfaction | Ambrey 2016; Fleming et al. 2016; Larson et al. 2016; MacKerron and Mourato... |