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This study investigated the use of a computer-based intervention for teaching orthographic symbols to children with autism. Through a structured seven-step fading procedure, children were taught to identify words from commercially available logos depicting food items. A multiple-probe design across participants was used to examine the effects of exposing 6 children with autism to 8 food items selected individually based on their meaningfulness to each child. The acquired knowledge was then tested for generalization into the classroom. Results indicated that after exposure to the fading procedure, all children were able to identify the orthographic symbols and maintain the knowledge over time. Most of the children were able to transfer the knowledge and generalize to daily activities within the classroom. Implications and future research directions are discussed. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
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This study investigated the use of a computer-based intervention for teaching orthographic symbols to children with autism. Through a structured seven-step fading procedure, children were taught to identify words from commercially available logos depicting food items. A multiple-probe design across participants was used to examine the effects of exposing 6 children with autism to 8 food items selected individually based on their meaningfulness to each child. The acquired knowledge was then tested for generalization into the classroom. Results indicated that after exposure to the fading procedure, all children were able to identify the orthographic symbols and maintain the knowledge over time. Most of the children were able to transfer the knowledge and generalize to daily activities within the classroom. Implications and future research directions are discussed.
Children with autism demonstrate difficulties in communication skills, verbal skills, communicative initiations, and social communicative behaviors (Koegel & Koegel, 1995; Schulcr, Prizant, & Wetherby, 1997). More than 50% of the children have difficulties in developing language skills and neglect to choose other means to communicate (Prizant, 1996). Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) strategies may enhance their means to communicate and provide them with acceptable means of communicating with people, helping them to become independent and influence their environment (Light, Roberts, Dimarco, & Greiner, 1998; Schepis, Reid, Beharmann, & Sutton, 1998). Graphic symbols such as line drawings, photographs, or pictograms are often used for AAC.
Research has demonstrated that children with autism learn to use graphic and orthographic symbols for expressive communication (Mirenda & Mathy-Laikko, 1989; Mirenda & Schuler, 1988; Schuler & Baldwin, 1981). Communication books and devices have been used for effective communication and for conveying various messages using different graphic symbols (Hamilton & Snell, 1993; Reichle & Brown, 1986).
Nonverbal children with autism can acquire the skills necessary to use AAC and assistive technologies (AT) even in preschool (Schepis et al., 1998). They learn to initiate, to identify symbols, and to use communication boards and books (Light et al., 1998; Quill, 1995). Over the years, as children develop their communication skills, further intervention may be required to advance their knowledge and provide them with communication systems, such as orthographic symbols, that are more acceptable and appropriate for use within the family and the local community. Orthographic symbols are preferred means to represent ideas when possible, as they are more commonly used and recognized than line drawings and pictures.
Orthographic symbols (i.e., words) are arbitrary symbols commonly used by the local community. Although preferred by families and the community, these symbols are often difficult for children with autism and developmental disabilities to identify. Research has demonstrated that of the various types of symbols used by children who use AAC, orthographic symbols are the most difficult to acquire (Lloyd, Fuller, & Arvidson, 1997). Yet, children who are AAC users need to be exposed to orthographic symbols to increase the acceptability and appropriateness of their communication (Koppenhaver, 2000). Exposure to orthographic symbols may increase emergent literacy and the opportunity to interact with written words. Moreover, incorporating written words into the communication boards may enhance independence and increase conformity. Fading is an effective intervention strategy used for teaching orthographic symbols (Barudin & Hourcade, 1990; Krantz & McClannahan, 1993, 1998; Raghavendra & Fristoe, 1995).
Fading incorporates a procedure in which the environmental graphic cues are removed gradually until they are totally extinct, leaving the bare orthographic symbol. Research has demonstrated that the use of fading procedures enables children with autism to acquire the ability to identify symbols and use them to relate to adults, to converse, and to enjoy fluent communication (Krantz & McClannahan, 1993, 1998).
Research comparing three methods of reading instruction evaluated the use of fading in developing specific recall skills in children who had developmental disabilities (Barudin & Hourcade, 1990). The fading procedure involved cards that depicted a word accompanied by a black-and-white line drawing. The clarity of the line drawing was reduced in four stages over time, leaving only the orthographic symbol at the end of the fading procedure. Results demonstrated that the children were able to identify the orthographic symbols and maintain knowledge over time. Krantz and McClannahan (1998) used a seven-step fading procedure of a word presented on a flashcard as part of a communication and beginners' reading program for children with autism. The fading procedure was effective in both learning and maintaining the knowledge acquired. The knowledge was then also transferred and used effectively in various communication activities.
The fading procedure facilitates learning orthographic symbols in a consistent, structured, continual manner. However, this procedure involves many small steps that may be time-consuming to teach and difficult to follow systematically. The computer provides a basis for incorporating this structured procedure in a systematic, organized, predictable, and multilevel manner. For example, by breaking the fading process into many steps, the computer can create a gradual fading continuum evenly spread across stages. In addition, due to its automatic nature, the computer can keep the fading steps consistent and accurate and enable repetitions and practice. Moreover, research has demonstrated that computers may be used effectively for teaching children with autism (Heimann, Nelson, Tjus, & Gillberg, 1995; Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004; Yamamoto & Miya, 1999).
Computers have been found to be effective for teaching appropriate communication, language skills, and graphic symbols. For example, an interactive computer intervention was used for enhancing communication, language, and reading by children with autism (Heimann et al., 1995). Results demonstrated an increase in those abilities after exposure to the interactive computer program. Multisensory interactions, controlled and structured environments, individualized use, and independence were some of the factors that assisted children with autism in working with computers (Higgins & Boone, 1996; Panyan, 1984). Computers have been found to be effective as they provide the children with the means to interact with an object using multiple senses in a multilevel learning environment (Chen & Bernard-Opitz, 1993; Hagiwara & Myles, 1999; Higgins & Boone, 1996). Research has also demonstrated that children with autism who experienced interactive computer-based simulations presenting appropriate communication behaviors were able to transfer the knowledge and generalize it into the natural classroom environment (Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004).
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of multilevel software designed to teach children with autism to identify orthographic symbols using a gradual fading procedure from common meaningful logos. The goal of the study was to investigate the ability of the children to recognize the orthographic symbols on the computer screen and to determine whether they were able to generalize the knowledge they gained to classroom activities.
Method
Participants
Six students were selected for the study based on the following criteria: (a) diagnosed with autism according to the criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) by the regional neurologist; (b) ages 10 to 13; (c) nonverbal or limited language ability, based on the evaluation of the school speech-language pathologist; (d) daily use of communication boards or communication devices in the classroom for all activities as determined by the classroom teacher; (e) use of graphic symbols such as line drawings, pictures, photographs, and product wrappings; (f ) no previous sight-word instruction or participation in reading curriculum; (g) regular computer use in the classroom with no apparent difficulties, as determined by the classroom teacher. The Ministry of Education did not permit researchers access to assessment results for children with disabilities; therefore, standardized scores could not be provided. All participants came from middle class to upper class families. Teachers and the speech-language pathologist provided descriptive information.
Max, an 11-year-old boy, had been diagnosed as having autism with moderate mental retardation. The speech-language pathologist report concluded that although his vocabulary included a few one-word utterances, he rarely used them. The classroom teacher reported that he had a communication board containing line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings including more than 100 symbols for basic needs and requests. He was independent in his adaptive daily living (ADL) skills and demonstrated a high level of concentration during classroom activities. When frustrated, he tended to bite himself. Max used the computer independently during classroom activities.
Bob, also 11 years old, had been diagnosed as having autism and moderate mental retardation. He did not speak, and he had comprehension difficulties. Bob used a voice-output device containing several symbols and a communication board with more than 100 line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings. The speech-language pathologist reported that he used them mainly for basic needs and requests. Bob was independent in his ADL skills and demonstrated a high level of concentration during classroom activities. When frustrated, he would cry and pinch people in his vicinity. Bob was able to use the computer independently during classroom activities.
Gina was a 13-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with autism and moderate mental retardation. The speech-language pathologist reported that she was not verbal but used her communication board for needs and requests, understood verbal instructions, and had more than 70 symbols (line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings). Gina was independent in her ADL and could focus well on classroom assignments. She used the computer independently.
Lara, a 10-year-old girl, had been diagnosed as having autism with moderate mental retardation. She did not vocalize and had a communication board and a device with more than 1OO line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings that she used to indicate her needs and requests. Lara had comprehension and generalization difficulties. The classroom teacher reported that she was independent in her ADL skills and demonstrated a low level of concentration. When frustrated, she tended to bite her arms and cry. Lara used the computer independently in the classroom.
Sara was a 10-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with autism and moderate mental retardation, and she had temper tantrums in which she cried, shouted, and hit herself and people around her. She used nonfunctional speech, employed immediate and delayed echolalia, and could initiate needs and requests. Sara used a communication board composed of line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings. She was independent in her ADL skills and demonstrated low levels of concentration. Sara was an independent computer user.
Al, a 10-year-old boy who had been diagnosed as having autism with moderate mental retardation, used nonfunctional speech, including immediate and delayed echolalia. He used a communication board composed of line drawings, pictures, and product wrappings for basic needs and requests. The classroom teacher reported that he was independent in his ADL skills, demonstrated low levels of concentration, and was an independent computer user. During the school year, he started demonstrating aggressive behaviors such as shouting, hitting, kicking, and biting. By the end of the school year he was hospitalized.
Setting and Materials
An IBM-compatible personal computer system located in the computer room was used for the study. One of the investigators (the second author) sat by the child during the sessions using the same computer used by the children during regular activities.
Referents were selected from two lists of food items retrieved from families and classroom teachers. Eight preferred items were selected from the lists created by those significant people for each participant. The eight-item list was then crossreferenced with the families and teachers and assessed with the children using their current symbol set. The children were asked to identify' the logos and then match them to a set of cards with the words depicted on them. Logos were identified by picking a picture of the logo when asked to do so verbally by the investigator. All children were able to identify the logos. None of the children were able to identify the words. Table 1 indicates the teaching order of the items to each participant.
Logos from the food wrappings of the items preferred by the children were scanned. A program developer used a programming language (C++©) to develop the platform used to incorporate the fading steps and the tracking procedure used to enforce the rigorous process used for the research design (program available from the authors). The software program was used to enforce seven fading steps on the logo (based on the logic of the seven-step fading procedure used by Krantz & McClannahan, 1998). Each step was structured carefully and repeated across all logos. For example, the first step was to shrink the scanned photo. The second step involved changing the colorful logo into a black-and-white image of the same logo. The third step deleted some of the background information from the logo. An additional 20% of the background information was deleted in the fourth step. The fifth step eliminated all background information besides the close area around the word. The sixth step eliminated all information except the word that appeared as an orthographic symbol using the original font used in the logo. In the last step, the symbol incorporated a black on white orthographic symbol using a standard font. (see Figure 1 for an example of the seven steps.)
The software incorporated an opening screen directed to the investigator. The opening screen presented possibilities such as food items, name of student participating in that session, and test or teaching modes. After selecting the task and participant name, a new screen appeared. When the test mode was selected, the screen opened again, depicting a food wrapping on the left and three standard-font orthographic symbols on the right-one correct and two incorrect (i.e., based on Hebrew orthography, the presentation of the stimuli was from right to left). The participant could select one of the choices. The same type of screen appeared during the teaching procedure, depicting a photo of the logo and three symbols, one correct and two incorrect. The distracters were programmed to appear randomly, each time according to the fading level. However, during teaching, the participant was exposed each time to a different set of three symbols, depending on the fading step (see Figure 1). All student selections (i.e., data collection) were automatically stored in a computer tile. Thus, no additional data collection was needed, as the computer file served as a permanent product.
FIGURE 1. Sample of the seven-step fading procedure for one of the food items (Bamba). The image in the first step in the procedure would be in color; the images in the remaining steps would be in black-in-white.
Two sets of cards size 10 by 15 cm were created to check for generalization. The eight referents were placed on cardhoard cards. One set contained orthographic representations of the selected items, whereas the other set contained pictures of the product packages as used in the computer program. The cards depicting the orthographic symbols \vere printed with black traditional font on white paper.
Design
A multiple-probe design across participants was used with two sets of three students in one school setting (Kazdin, 1982; Richards, Taylor, Ramamamy, & Richards, 1999). Each session incorporated a computer-based test of the eight orthographic symbols and an exposure to the computer-based fading procedure. In this experimental design, comparisons were made for each participant between baseline and intervention, across three participants, with two replications.
Procedure
Preliminary Generalization Task. After it was determined that all of the children could identify the logos from their preferred food items but not the words representing the food items, each child was asked to participate in tasks that would be used after the intervention to test for generalization. In the first task, each participant was asked to match a picture of each logo (product package) to a cardboard card depicting an orthographic representation of that réfèrent. The investigator randomly flashed one of the eight cards depicting an orthographic symbol and said, "Put the card next to its package." The logos were all placed on the table between the participant and the investigator. Each participant was asked to match all eight cards, one card at a time. Once the participant placed the card on the table by a logo, the card depicting the word was removed and a new card was exposed. Only nonspecific intermittent feedback was provided during this process.
In the second task, participants were asked to match the card depicting the orthographic symbol (i.e., word) to an actual food item. The investigator flashed one of the eight cards randomly and said, "Put this card next to the food item." The food items were all placed on the table between the participant and the investigator. Each participant was asked to match all eight cards, one card at a time. Once the participant placed a card on the table, it was removed and a new card was exposed. Nonspecific feedback was given during this process (e.g., "Good job," "Go on," "You are working well"). These tasks were similar to classroom activities and school assignments involving word identification and literacy-related curricula. An independent observer collected data by marking if the child was correct or incorrect in matching the orthographic representation to the logo and the orthographic representation to the food during 20% of the sessions.
Baseline. Computer sessions were conducted three times a week in the school's computer classroom. At the beginning of each session, the participants were asked if they would like to participate in a computer game. Once they had agreed, they were asked to follow the investigator to the computer room, where the computer was already set up with a program testing the ability to recognize the orthographic symbols. During the session, the participant was asked to start working on the matching task. The first session involved a demonstration of the process using a special demo prepared as part of the software package. After the demonstration, the investigator asked the participant to activate the program independently. The screen contained three orthographic symbols (one correct word and two incorrect words) and a matching logo (see "Setting and Materials"). The participant was asked to place the chosen word over the matching logo. Once the word was placed over the logo, a new screen appeared depicting a new set of three words and a logo. After selecting the eight items, the participant was finished. No feedback was provided during that procedure. The selection results were collected and saved automatically in a computer file. Once the participant sat by the computer, the whole process was self-administered and the investigator served as a technical problem-solving person. At the end of the session, the participant was escorted back to class. The testing sessions served as a baseline before intervention started. Baseline sessions continued until a stable baseline was established.
Intervention. Intervention began with two of the six students, with each student serving as a replication in a different multiple-probe design set. All other students continued with baseline testing probes once every 4 days. Max and Lara began intervention with their first logo. During intervention, each participant was exposed to a gradual fading process depicted on the computer screen. Each logo underwent seven levels of fading, beginning with the original logo and ending with the standard font of the orthographic symbol. At each stage, the student was required to match the logo or one of the fading stages to the picture of the original product. Once a successful match occurred, a smiley face appeared on the screen and a repetition of the same task followed. The use of a smiley face was determined as a reinforcer commonly used in the classroom as a token for successful activities. When the participant successfully matched the item twice, the next level of fading appeared. Only when all steps had been concluded could the participant start learning the next referent. When an incorrect match occurred, the word returned automatically to its original position on the same screen, implying that the task needed to be initiated again. This feedback was accepted by the participants as a natural consequence with no negative impact.
Once Max and Lara finished learning 75% of the orthographic symbols, intervention began with the second set of participants, Bob and Sara, following the same procedure and using their specific items according to the order specified in Table 1. Once those two learned at least 75% of the orthographic symbols, the last two participants, Gina and Al, began.
Maintenance. After intervention, probe data were collected once a week to investigate symbol identification over time. The procedure was identical to the one used during baseline. Based on the order of implementation, maintenance data were collected for 7 to 15 weeks.
Postintervention Generalization Task. At the end of intervention, the preliminary generalization test was repeated during regular activities in the classroom. The test involved both (a) a matching task between a card depicting the orthographic symbol (i.e., word) and a food wrapping and (b) a matching task between a card depicting the orthographic symbol and a food item.
Social Validity. Items for the study were selected on the basis of the child's preferences, on teacher knowledge and observations, and on family reports. Recognizing the orthographic symbols (words) was selected as a desired goal by the school staff and families because of the social and communicative benefits. Words are socially acceptable symbols that are commonly used by the community. Once acquired, they provide the learner with access to those words in other places within the community and with access to further knowledge and literacy.
Reliability. A second observer recorded data on 20% of the pre- and postgeneralization tasks. Interobserver agreement was 97% and 96% for pre- and postintervention generalization tasks. The second observer also collected data for procedural integrity (i.e., adherence to the steps as outlined in the baseline and intervention sections) across 20% of the sessions. Procedural reliability checks demonstrated 98% accuracy across all data points.
Results
Results of this study demonstrate a steady increase in the learning of orthographic symbols by all participants (see Figures 2 and 3). Through the fading procedure and the computer-based program, students learned to match the logos presented on the photos of the food wrappings with the standard font orthographic symbols. Figure 2 depicts the results for Max, Bob, and Gina. Figure 3 shows the results for Sara, Lara, and Al.
Each of the participants learned his or her specific list of eight words derived and faded from the logos. None of the participants, it had been determined in the assessment, could identify the words before intervention. During baseline sessions, participants recognized some of the words randomly, because of the nature of the presentation. However, there was no consistency in symbol recognition or in the learning pattern. Once intervention began, all students learned to recognize the orthographic symbols and maintained their knowledge over time. Table 2 presents the number of incorrect identifications during the learning process for all participants.
Max was the first participant to start intervention (see Figure 2). He reached 100% success after 10 sessions and maintained an 85% mean of identification over 13 probes. Table 3 demonstrates the results of the generalization tasks after intervention terminated. Those results indicate that Max was able to match 81% of the orthographic symbols depicted on the cards with the food packages displayed in the classroom. In the matching task performed in the classroom with actual food products, Max was able to identify 84% of the food items with the cards.
Bob began intervention once Max reached criterion. Before intervention, he was able to randomly select 25% of the orthographic symbols, on average, across all baseline sessions, although no consistency was reached in symbol recognition (see Figure 2). At the end of intervention, which lasted 10 sessions, Bob was able to identify all eight symbols with a 100% accuracy level. After intervention, Bob participated in 10 probes in which he maintained a level of 81%. As shown in Table 3, after intervention, Bob was able to match 84% of the packages with the orthographic symbols depicted on the cards. In the second generalization task, performed in the classroom with actual food products, Bob was able to identify 94% of the food items with the cards.
Gina was the last participant in the first group of children to begin intervention, after 12 baseline probes of 25% mean accuracy (see Figure 2). After five intervention sessions, Gina reached 100% accuracy. During maintenance, Gina participated in eight probes with a mean accuracy level of 96%. As shown in Table 3, Gina was able to identify 87% of the symbols and could match 100% of the food items with the orthographic symbols.
Lara was the first participant in the second, replicating group to start intervention (see Figure 3). She did so after four baseline sessions of 35% accuracy. Lara reached 100% success after 10 sessions and maintained a 79% mean of identification over 13 probes. As demonstrated in the graph, Lara was absent from school during the second and fourth intervention sessions. Results demonstrate that after intervention, she was able to match only 31% of the first generalization task and 25% of the second generalization task (see Table 3).
After Lara reached criterion, Sara began intervention (see Figure 3). Sara maintained a stable baseline of 30% with nine probes before intervention and reached 100% accuracy only after 11 sessions. It took Sara several sessions of unstable results until she started to gain a steady increase, and she reached mastery level after four sessions. Those changes were connected with severe changes in her emotional state reported by the classroom teacher. Thus, the mean accuracy during intervention was 82%. After intervention, Sara maintained an accuracy level with a mean of 82%. During the first generalization task, Sara was able to match 96%, and she matched 100% on the second task (see Table 3).
TABLE 2Number of Incorrect Matches Performed Until Meeting the Criterion for All Referents by All Participants Across All Fading StagesTABLE 3Number Correct Out of Eight Trials in Generalization Tasks Across Time for All Participants
Al was the last participant in the second set to begin intervention, with 28% accuracy in 13 probes (see Figure 3). After eight sessions, Al reached 87% accuracy and maintained it over time. Maintenance probes demonstrated a mean of 80% accuracy in identifying the orthographic symbols. Al was able to match only 40% on the first generalization task and 37% on the second generalization task (see Table 3).
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a computer-based program for enhancing the identification of orthographic symbols by six children with autism. The program used a multilevel fading procedure from logos presented on photos of food packaging to standard-font orthographic symbols depicting the words representing the referents (i.e., printed words). The food items were selected from a list of referents suggested by significant people (i.e., family members and classroom teachers) and verified in the classroom with the children. Results provide support for the effectiveness of this interactive procedure.
Results suggest that children with autism were capable of learning to match photos of package wrappings to printed words and maintain the knowledge over time. These results support previous research that also found fading to be a suitable tool for teaching children word identification (Krantz & McClannahan, 1993, 1998). Fading was found to be an effective tool, as it enabled the child to start the learning process with familiar shapes that encompassed composites from the close environment and used objects that were meaningful to the child. In this research, the items were selected on the basis of the meaningfulness of the item for the child, as determined by people who were significant to, and knowledgeable about, the child. Those items were part of the child's environment at home and at school and included significant logos available also as commercials on bulletin boards and on television. In addition, the colorful and bold shapes of the products were attractive and therefore may also have assisted in the preliminary stages of learning.
The fading procedure used in this study consisted of seven steps incorporating visual cues that were eliminated in stages (Krantz & McClannahan, 1993, 1998). This gradual procedure provided a memory task easy to recall without causing memory overload, which enabled a learning procedure with a minimal number of errors. Although eliminating several items and cues, each stage still included many of the previously available visual items and created a supporting atmosphere equipped also with positive feedback and consistent opportunities to succeed.
Children's learning of communication via AAC strategies can be enhanced when motivation is present (Mirenda & Schuler, 1988; Quill, 1995). Parents and teachers identified possible motivational food items for each child participating in the study. The symbols selected for the study were preferred items and probably motivational for the children. Motivation may have been further enhanced through the use of a computer-based intervention, which presented a safe environment, enabling the children to independently experience the fading procedure in a controlled, structured environment. All the children were competent computer users and felt confident during the process, a situation that created an easy learning environment. They routinely used the computer as part of their daily activities in school. The participants did not demonstrate frustration during the learning process, and they ran to the computer room whenever they were presented with the opportunity to practice using the software. These results are consistent with previous research that found computers to be a motivating tool for working with children who have autism (Hagiwara & Myles, 1999). However, on one occasion during intervention, one of the participants bit himself when no response was provided. Further research should explore the role of various types of feedback for children with autism.
During the preliminary stages of learning, most of the children found the task easy and could transfer their knowledge from step to step with no difficulties. The natural consequences and the positive feedback gave them opportunities to succeed. Even when many of the additional cues were eliminated, most of the children were able to identify the special logo and its configuration when it appeared. For most of the children, Steps 1 through 6 presented smooth transitions that enabled close to errorless transitions. Gina found the task easy to learn across all steps, whereas Sara found all steps relatively difficult. Lara found the last two steps more difficult, whereas Al, Bob, and Max found all steps increasingly difficult. After the sixth step, the process was more difficult, and most of the children needed several attempts before they successfully continued to the last step. As this step included a transfer directly from the orthographic symbol depicted in the unique writing of the logo to the standard font, the last step proved to be a leap hard to accomplish for everyone except Gina. It took most of the children longer to reach the goal of identifying the standard-font words. It may be that the different font reduced the number of familiar items in the fading process to an extreme. Perhaps more steps would have made the process easier. Further research should clarify whether additional steps enhance errorless transitions and increase smoother learning of traditional-font orthographic symbols.
Before intervention, none of the participants were able to identify the orthographic symbols during classroom activities and generalization tasks. After the children were exposed to the computer program and after learning all the target words within the structured environment, it was imperative to investigate the effectiveness of the acquisition within their classroom environments. Thus, the preliminary generalization task was repeated in the classroom as part of the children's daily activities. Most of the children were able to identify the orthographic symbols in both tasks, thus demonstrating a clear change in their abilities. Two children, Al and Lara, demonstrated noticeably lower abilities. Al, demonstrating low results during generalization, was undergoing personal difficulties that were apparent across all his school performances and at home. At the end of the school year, he was hospitalized. Lara, who also demonstrated lower abilities in generalization, was absent for some of the time. Although she caught up with the computer assignment, perhaps the smaller number of sessions spent on intervention affected her generalization abilities. In addition, her teacher reported that she usually demonstrated difficulties in generalization tasks in the classroom. Thus, maybe for Lara, additional generalization points along the intervention could improve generalization. Further research could clarify the effects of the number of intervention points on the generalization abilities of children with autism.
The second generalization task involved matching between the words presented on a card and an actual food item presented on a plate on the table. Most of the participants were more successful at this task. One possible reason for this difference could be that after the exposure to the first task, they learned and generalized more easily on the second task. In addition, real food items presented on plates could have served as a motivational, appropriate, and desired reinforcer for the participants. This second task also provided the researchers with an affirmation regarding the social validity of the food items, serving as a good reinforcer. Further research should investigate those possibilities.
The teachers reported that at the end of the procedure, the orthographic symbols replaced packages and photos on the children's communication boards and devices, which were then used throughout the remainder of the school year. Thus, the children were able to transfer the knowledge learned via the computer program and generalize to tasks within the classroom, and later use them for communication purposes. These results are consistent with previous research investigating generalization from a computer intervention procedure to the classroom environment (Hetzroni & Tannous, 2004; Yamamoto & Miya, 1999). This study did not investigate use of less-desired food items or other types of logos as reinforcers. Further research should address fading as a strategy for other symbols.
This study investigated the effects of using an interactive fading computer procedure for teaching orthographic symbols to children with autism. The commonly recognized symbols (i.e., commercial logos) were familiar and were used for various activities by the children in the classroom and at home. Those symbols were easy for the children to recognize at the initial stages of the study and therefore served as good reinforcers throughout the fading procedure. The six children participating in the study effectively learned all eight symbols, and most of them were able to transfer the knowledge back into classroom activities. Thus, the results of this study hold a promise that children with autism who use logos and other objects and pictures may be capable of learning to identify orthographic symbols, which are more acceptable and age appropriate.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Orit E. Hetzroni, PhD, is an associate professor of special education at the University of Haifa, Israel. Her current interests include autism, augmentative and alternative communication, assistive technology, and computer applications in special education. Uri Shalem, MA, is a teacher and supervisor of autism in an elementary school. He is in charge of an inclusion program for children with autism. Address: Orit E. Hetzroni, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Haifa 31905, Israel; e-mail: [email protected]
Copyright PRO-ED Journals Winter 2005