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Food Security and Conflict*
ARMED conflicts lead to hunger and reduced food production and economic growth in developing and transition countries. Reciprocally, food and economic insecurity and natural resource scarcities-real and perceived-often precipitate violence. In "food wars," hunger is deliberately used as a weapon (Messer, 1990). Such conflicts have been an important factor in famines since the 1980s (Bohle, 1993; Messer, 1994, 1996a; Macrae and Zwi, 1993, 1994).
Since the mid-1970s, famine early warning systems and international food reserves have enhanced emergency response capacity in cases of natural disaster; relief activities are much more difficult when active conflict or social disorganization accompanying or following conflict prevent food distribution. Prolonged conflicts and their aftermath also prevent farming and marketing, and destroy land, waterworks, markets, infrastructure, and communities.
This paper explores the multiple connections between food insecurity and armed conflict, estimates agricultural and other costs of conflict, and examines policy options aimed at reducing conflict, improving food security, and breaking the links between hunger and conflict.
The Extent and Nature of Contemporary Armed Conflict
In 1997, there were 33 armed conflicts in 26 locations around the world. Of these, 21 were "major conflicts" resulting in a total of 1,000 or more deaths (Table 1) (Sollenberg, 1998). This violence left tens of millions of people at risk of hunger and malnutrition, including nearly 14 million refugees, 31 million internally displaced within their own countries, and an unknown number trapped within conflict zones. In contrast, in 1985, there were about 11 million refugees and 10 million internally displaced people (Hansch, 1996; UNHCR, 1998; USCR, 1998) (Figure 1).
As Table 2 indicates, seven million people were in need of food and other humanitarian assistance in nine of the countries facing conflict in 1997. No data is available for the other 12 conflict zones, and these figures do not include refugees who fled into neighboring countries. An additional 5.5 million people remained dependent on humanitarian assistance in 11 post-conflict areas in 1997.
All but one of the major conflicts of 1997 were civil wars. But internal conflicts frequently affect food security in neighboring countries, as fighting spills across borders, disrupts regional commerce, or forces out refugees who require food, water, land, and fuel. Refugees' sales of cattle and valuables, and sometimes...