What is anarchist literary theory?

Abstract

Over the course of its history, the anarchist movement has produced a form of literary theory - a critical aesthetics and epistemology grounded in its emancipatory ethics. In sketching an outline of this body of thought, this essay attempts to call attention to several aspects which offer a promising alternative to the sterility of the modes of theory dominant within the academy. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

ABSTRACT

Over the course of its history, the anarchist movement has produced a form of literary theory - a critical aesthetics and epistemology grounded in its emancipatory ethics. In sketching an outline of this body of thought, this essay attempts to call attention to several aspects which offer a promising alternative to the sterility of the modes of theory dominant within the academy.

1.

The recent revival of academic interest in the anarchist tradition has drawn new attention to its reflections in literature, particularly via the influence of the anarchist movement on avant-garde modernisms (e.g., Pound's poetry, Picasso's collages), and via the role played by figures of 'the anarchist' and 'anarchy' in certain narratives (e.g., Joseph Conrad's The Secret Agent or Frank Norris's The Octopus).1 However, this discussion has all but entirely omitted any consideration of the possible contributions of anarchism to literary criticism. As Roger Dadoun writes, this contribution is not simply a matter of cataloging 'anarchist elements in literature,' whether works by anarchist authors, addressing anarchist topics, or purporting to be stylistically anarchic (1997, translation mine). Nor is a coherent body of anarchist theorization on literature a mere hypothesis; it exists, albeit almost completely consigned to official oblivion, in the historical archives. Like other forms of literary theory which draw on the traditions of oppositional political movements, e.g., ecocriticism, postcolonialism, marxism, feminism, queer theory, etc., anarchist literary theory draws its inspiration from the body of thought and practices which have historically comprised the anarchist movement.

2.

This tradition is manifold and still evolving; one can trace at least two major lines of development in anarchist theory, one of which leads from Proudhon and Bakunin to Noam Chomsky and the late Murray Bookchin, the other stemming primarily from Max Stirner and coming, by several twists and turns, to influence Raoul Vaneigem, Fredy Perlman, and John Zerzan. The latter tendency, sometimes identified as 'individualist,' 'anti-organizationalist,' or 'primitivist,' has typically attracted a minority, although it now exercises a wider appeal for North American activists; the former, bearing stronger historical ties to the workers' movements of Europe and the Americas, is generally called 'social anarchism.' I will confine my generalizations to the majority tendencies of social anarchism, which have received far less attention in academic scholarship, but which have, I believe, far more to offer to a conversation about literary theory which has wandered into a kind of dead end.2

3.

A distinctive feature of anarchism, as a political movement, is that it roots itself not in a fixed epistemological schema, e.g., a set of propositions about the true structure of history, capital, patriarchy, etc., but in an ethical stance, the positive side of which consists in a fundamental affirmation of freedom, equality, and the coexistence of the different not only as ends but as means, the negative side of which consists in a fundamental refusal of domination and hierarchy per se, not only as instanced in relations of class or gender or race, etc., but in any and all relationship (Graeber 2004a:5-6; Granier I.3.3B, translation mine).

Anarchists oppose domination as such, not only insofar as this presents itself as the effect or byproduct of some supposedly fundamental category: 'Slavery may change its form or its name - its essence remains the same' (Bakunin 1972: 137). Thus, from the time of Proudhon on, anarchists have regarded not only Capital, the State, and the Church as analogous enemies (with overlapping interests), but also patriarchy, racism, colonialism, heterosexism, and so on, on the same ethical grounds (Colson 2001: 24, translation mine). Marxist theory presents itself as 'science' - as an 'analytical discourse' which describes how history progresses, or how capital works, or how class society is structured (Graeber 2004a: 6). By contrast, as Daniel Colson remarks, anarchist theory 'is above all an ethical project which directly engages, in its least practice, in judging the value of relations and situations' (2001: 108, translation mine; May and Lance 983-84). This ethics refuses to locate the desired good in some Utopian elsewhere or elsewhen, in the afterlife or after the revolution, a deferral which authorizes the dualism of 'ends' versus 'means' (and, as Colson notes, 'the mastery over time that this distinction presupposes') but insists that means contain their own ends, that a genuinely transformative movement 'prefigures' the society it seeks to bring about in its practices here and now (Landauer quoted, in Lunn 1973: 227; Colson 2001: 119, translation mine; Graeber 2002: 62).

4.

This means that we do not need to approach any given text armed with predetermined categories that we read it against - e.g., the categories of class, gender, race, etc.; instead, we seek to enter a dialogue with the text, not only to critique it from an external perspective seen as superior, but to reconstruct our perspective with the aid of the text itself.

Herbert Read protested against the project of New Criticism, not only for its formalism but for its instauration of interpretive 'canons' which reduce each particular encounter between reader and text to an instance of the same ('turning every poem into a well-wrought urn or verbal icon according to these critics' special dicta,' as Valentine Cunningham puts it), an exercise in 'false method': 'the critical faculty, elaborating its laws too far from its immediate object, may construct categories or ideals that are in the nature of impassive moulds. The critic then returns to the plastic substance of art and in a moment, in the name of science, he has presented us with a rigid shape which he would persuade us is the living reality' (Cunningham 2002: 2; Read 1967: 37). This deductive model of inquiry is directly analogous to the vanguardist model of political action, in which the revolutionary elite, possessing 'correct' theory, imposes this rigid schema upon a 'mass' conceived as essentially homogenous and passive. By contrast, as Voline puts it, anarchists refuse to locate an ordering 'principle' in 'a centre created in advance to capture the whole and impose itself upon it,' seeking instead an order which emerges 'from all sides' (quoted in Guérin 1970: 43, italics mine). In this sense, anarchist inquiry refuses, as Kenneth Burke would put it, to read texts against 'a "symbolist dictionary" already written in advance'; it must be 'inductive,' always ready to rearticulate and reconstruct its own principles from inside the encounter with the text (Burke 1974: 89, italics mine; Jablon 1997: 1-2).

5.

For anarchists, treating literature as 'autonomous' from the social means failing to think autonomy in social terms; ergo, questions of literature must always be situated in a wider social context, with the aim of determining what kind of relationships the text offers to bring about between ourselves and one another, between ourselves and the world.

'Art,' declares an entry in the Encyclopédie anarchiste, 'must be social in the most complete sense of the word' (Faure 1934: 144). As Gustav Landauer put it, 'literature ... cannot be viewed as an autonomous activity,' separate from the rest of 'life,' without thereby falsifying it - indeed, not without fundamentally misconceiving the nature of autonomy, which is nothing if not a social relation: just as, for Bakunin, 'I am truly free only when all human beings, men and women, are equally free,' so we can conclude with Herbert Read that 'to escape from society (if that were possible) is to escape from the only soil rich enough to nourish art' (Lunn 1973: 44-45; Castoriadis 1998: 108; Bakunin 1972: 237; Read 1938: 20). Thus, for Ricardo Flores Magon, the very notion of 'art for art's sake' is 'an absurdity' (translation mine). Art cannot be removed to some 'mystical, transcendental sphere' outside of human relations; it must be 'situated,' created and received 'en situation' (Litvak 1988: 76; Proudhon 1939: 276, 337). Like other 'signs,' literary texts in some sense 'help us to cope with their designates'; a 'style of speech' is also 'a way of being in the world' (Goodman 1971: 98). We are concerned with the quality of the various ways of being in the world that certain uses of language might afford us.

6.

At the same time, the particular text must never be simply reduced to an instance of a context, seen solely as the expression of some larger, fixed structure; there is always the possibility of surprise, of transformation.

If language were, in Nietzsche's phrase, an inescapable 'prison-house' (quoted in Jameson 1972: i), then there would be nothing for anarchists to do but surrender or be silent, which would amount to the same thing. However, this conception has never been accepted by anarchists such as Paul Goodman, who denounces it for 'abstracting language [per se],' i.e., what Saussure termed la langue, 'from speaking and hearing in actual situations,' i.e., concrete utterances, la parole, so as to privilege the 'constancy and supra-individuality' of language 'as against the variability and interpersonality of natural language' (1971: 86-87). Rather than 'take a statistical average of speech events and abstract a structure from it,' Goodman argues for a conception of 'language as the tension between the inherited code and what needs to be said,' a dynamic process rather than a static structure: 'the power to speak and hear continually modifies the code ... And language is not the code but these sentences' (1971: 137, 131, 33, italics mine).

In other words, for anarchists, language is not just the passive 'repetition of familiar signs' (Vaneigem 1994: 101); it is also an 'action' (Goodman 1964b: 248). Thus, writing and reading are not only the repeated confirmation of self-referential structures; they can be and are a means of transformation through which 'my preconceptions have been changed, I have been moved in ways that I had not expected' (1964b: 236). Meanings are never simply 'reducible to the sum of the forces and elements which joined to produce them ... They are at the same time more and other, distinct from the forces which render them possible' (Colson 2004). Anarchist interpretation seeks both this ground of possibility and the possibilities themselves, the 'more and other.'

7.

Since an anarchist ethical stance means both a refusal to dominate and a refusal to be dominated, an ethical approach to the text cannot simply mean a receptive or empathetic reading, in which we merely submit to its terms, nor can it mean a purely active reading, reading as the 'use' or violent 'appropriation' of the text; instead of positing ourselves as the slaves or the masters of texts, we ought to place ourselves into a dynamic relation with them, to see each encounter with them as a dialogue fraught with risk and promise.

From one perspective, interpretation implies a cringing admission of 'indebtedness' to the text; rather than submit, the 'post-interpretive' reader declares that 'there is no longer an object to interpret,' or, as Stanley Fish and Richard Rorty suggest, that there is no 'text' which 'exist[s] independently of anything [the reader] might do' (Kristeva 1986: 306; Rorty 151; Fish 1980: 368). From another perspective, to interpret a text means 'to impose a limit on that text, to furnish it with a final signified, to close the writing' - 'an arbitrary imposition or a violent practice' (Barflies 1977: 147; Shapiro 1992: 2). From the first perspective, an anti-authoritarian interpretive practice would amount to resisting 'the tyranny of the signifier' in the name of the reader's 'freedom' (Owens 1983: 59; Culler 1983: 72); from the second perspective, an anti-authoritarian ethic would call for 'undermining ... the privileged status of the interpreter' (Spanos 1979: 135). The anarchist tradition suggests that both of these conceptions of freedom and interpretation are inadequate, and that only a dialogical conception will do.

For Proudhon, an anarchist discourse community is incompatible with the unquestioned supremacy of any fixed ideas, any 'absolute'; instead, it 'presupposes, as its principle, the greatest contradiction, and as its means, the greatest multiplicity possible' (1935: III.270, translation mine). Entering into this dialogue of many voices requires the participants to reframe their individual perspectives in terms of others', so that they progressively refine and break down 'their subjectivity, i.e. the absolute that the "me" affirms,' creating 'a common manner of seeing, which no longer resembles, either in content or in form, what it would have been without this debate ...'In short, the diversity and dissensus generated by perpetual discussion gives place to a 'new manner of seeing, constituted by relations which have been purged of metaphysical and absolutist elements,' which he calls 'the collective or public reason' (1935: III.256-61, translation mine).

This dialogue cannot take place, however, unless there is a genuine interplay between the parties involved. If I simply dominate the text, supplying all its meaning, then my perspective can never be changed or enriched by reading, and the 'me' remains (falsely) absolute; if I cannot contribute to the construction of meaning, however, then the text cannot tell me anything - unless, in fact, I substitute for the text as it exists, with all its possibilities, a preconceived interpretation, generally a received, traditional, rigidly conventional reading, as in the case of fundamentalist readings of the Torah, Bible, or Koran. In the latter case, I submit to the 'transcendent' authority of'a vicariate, a priesthood ... [i.e., a] Logos'; in the former case, I enclose myself in a 'narcissism' or solipsism for which 'everything can be made up, finally nothing is given, there are no facts' (Dadoun 1997, translation mine; Proudhon 1935: III.363, translation mine; Goodman 1964b: 81). Only if the text and I can each contest one another, call one another into question, can there be an exercise of the 'collective reason' which permits freedom to coexist with community. Thus the necessity of a 'reading ... with double intent,' from perspectives which are internal to the text and from perspectives external to them, of reading with 'sympathy and empathy and of 'look[ing] for what hides behind discourses' (de Cleyre 1914: 379-380; Read 1967:9; Granier 2003: II, 'Introduction,' translation mine). Through such a 'double labour,' we come not only to 'construct' the text that we 'apprehend,' but to 'respect' it, to allow it the opportunity to reconstruct ourselves: 'we make it at the same time that it makes us' (Dadoun 1997; Landauer 1974: 42, translations mine).

8.

The positive face of anarchism entails a theory of textual meaning as relationship - specifically, of textual meaning as that which emerges from two sets of relations: a.) the relations between the text and the forces which produced it within a given situation, and b.) the relations between the text as a force and its possible effects or uses in particular situations.

Since 'the fact and the idea are really inseparable,' it follows that we can interpret them: 'From all these facts, let us draw out the general idea' (Proudhon 1935: II.298, III.71, translation mine). This 'general idea' or 'logic of things' (Proudhon 1935: I.192, translation mine) can be thought in terms of a notion shared by Proudhon, Bakunin, and Kropotkin, namely, that of the 'resultant.' In Proudhon's words, 'everywhere there is a group, there is a resultant which is the power of the group, distinct not only from the particular forces or powers which compose the group, but also from their sum, and which expresses its synthetic unity, the pivotal, central function' (Proudhon 1935: III 408-409, translation mine). The relevant 'group,' in the case of a literary text, may include more than just the specific arrangement of signs on a specific number of pages; it may include the entire situation from which this arrangement emerged and any aspect of the changing situations in which a reader arrives at it. As Goodman emphasizes, an important dimension of meaning is 'the situation' of an utterance rather than its content, i.e., the conditions of'the existence of the speech as an act': in the public rhetoric of politicians, for instance, 'the real meaning of the speeches, the goal of profits and power, is never stated' (1971: 97; 1964a: 65).

Textual meaning, from this perspective, is neither exclusive of nor limited to reference to an objectively existing reality ('within a spatial deployment of things and beings,' as Colson puts it); it includes the possibility of such reference within a wider conception of the text as an act, an event, a 'force' (2004: 152). Instead of isolating and privileging the purely performative aspect of signs - 'What is important in a text is not what it means, but what it does and incites to do' (Lyotard 1984: 9-10); 'language is the transmission of the word as order-word, not the communication of a sign as information' (Deleuze and Guattari 1987: 77) - anarchist theorizations of language refuse to 'hypostasize' the performative or the constative functions of language, and suggest that 'the two essential attributes of the same being,' are 'reason and force,' or 'signification and power': 'any force has a signification and ... any signification is the expression of a force' (Proudhon 1935: III.369; Colombo 2002: 132-133; Colson 2002: 144, translations mine). Moreover, each text, as an event, must be viewed both in retrospect, as the sequel to other events (other texts, the facts of the author's life, 'what they meant for them, in their time,' the cultural and historical milieu, even the objective referents which it may concern) and in prospect, as the possible cause of further and future events (other occasions, readings, receptions, and responses) (Landauer 1974: 50, translation mine). In this sense, the text is to be seen, no less than a human being, as 'at once a radically new, autonomous reality, carrying its own force, and at the same time the expression of the forces and powers which, in composing it, make it possible' (Colson 1998). It is possible, then, to regard texts as 'representations' of an objective world or 'expressions' of an author's subjectivity without thereby reducing them to these functions and without endorsing a naive-realist theory of mimesis; it is also possible for an interpreter to claim to 'represent' the text without privileging a single, reductive reading.

9.

In this sense, then, anarchism is not simply a 'rejection of representation,' insofar as representation is synonymous with communication or meaning; for a text to fail to represent, communicate, or mean anything, it would have to have no relation to antecedents and no consequences, i.e., to be outside of all relationship, which is to say, to cease to be.

On the one hand, anarchism has always posed a rigorous and profound critique of the intersection of representation with power. So-called 'representative democracy,' from this perspective, is largely an apparatus for the transfer of power from the represented to the representative, a kind of floating signifier which can scarcely be adequate to the 'general will' which is its supposed signified. On the other hand, the alternative to the State is not a Rousseauvian 'state of nature,' a collection of absolutely self-contained individuals; it is the self-management of society. This self-management entails the establishment of a 'relationship' between people which is the adequate 'representation' of society by itself to itself: 'the government, no longer distinguishing itself from [our] interests and freedoms in so far as they place themselves in relation with one another, ceases to exist' (Proudhon 1936: 288-290, translation and italics mine). This relationship finds its forms in the horizontal federation, a 'forming and disbanding of thousands of representative, district, communal, regional, national bodies' which never subordinates the parts to the whole, and in the practice of direct democracy, whereby members of a collectivity assemble to formulate policy in person, sending instructed representatives (delegates) to convey their decisions to other bodies, empowered at any time'to call them to order ... to replace them'(Malatesta 1993: 153; Leval 2005: 478). Rather than a static 'harmony,' then, anarchism produces a 'continually modified' series of arrangements, 'a temporary adjustment established among all forces acting upon a given spot ... representing every moment the resultant of all conflicting actions' (Kropotkin 1970: 121). While 'it is always an object of suspicion,' then, 'representation ... is thus not rejected per se by the anarchists'; it is not simply abolished but reconceived as plural and mobile (Granier 2003: II, 'Introduction,' translation mine).

This reconstruction of representation is implicit in the anarchist conception of freedom. Real emancipation, as opposed to formal or juridical right, for Bakunin, has to be conceived in social terms, not as independence from social relationships: 'The freedom of each individual is the ever-renewing result of numerous material, intellectual, and moral influences of the surrounding individuals and of the society into which he is born ... to wish to escape this influence in the name of a transcendental, divine, absolutely self-sufficient freedom is to condemn oneself to nonexistence' (1972: 257). To be, indeed, is to be 'grouped'; existence means 'collective being' (Proudhon 1946: 63, 80; 1935: III.263, translation mine). This collectivity cannot constitute itself, however, without communication and hence language: when 'language ... is lost,' Andre Leo writes, 'all that truly connects men and consolidates their relations' perishes with it. 'As a "structure of intelligibility" necessary to communication,' Caroline Granier elaborates, 'representation ensures the coherence of social exchanges: one could not reject it without attacking the social bond' (Léo quoted in Granier 2003: II, 'Introduction'; Granier 2003: II, 'Introduction,' translations mine). Thus understood, it quickly becomes apparent that, as Colson explains, although there is always a 'danger' that, if we fail to maintain a critical awareness of them, 'signs ... can come to substitute for the reality that they ought to express, to take their place,' i.e., that they can be reified into a new 'absolute,' they nonetheless 'play an essential role in the relations of "reciprocity" which the various collective beings are able to establish among themselves'; it is only through systems of signs, moreover, that 'collective beings not only have the possibility of increasing their power, but also, by associating with one another, of giving birth to much vaster collective beings endowed with a collective reason' (2001:316).

10.

The primary critical question, for anarchists, is how a given text can be seen to represent life.

As an ethics that demands a 'continuous evaluation of the emancipatory or oppressive quality of actions, perspectives, and standpoints,' anarchism requires us to investigate 'their capacity (or lack thereof) to promote a stronger and freer life' (Colson 2001: 112, 299, translation and emphases mine). When we do so in the context of literary and cultural studies, we are guided by our critical understanding of language and its representational powers.

In his critique of structuralist linguistics, Goodman critiques 'the thesis of Benjamin Whorf, that the language determines the metaphysics of the tribe and what people can think,' arguing that 'language is checked by nonverbal experience,' that it is 'plastic' enough to '[say] new things,' and that we can and do 'communicate across the barrier of culture and language.' However, he suggests, 'if we put Whorf's thesis in a more modest form, it is more rewarding. People use language, they are not [merely] determined by it; but when they do use it - and by the language they choose - they focus their experience and define and limit their thoughts. A style of speech is an hypothesis about how the world is' (1971: 171-72, italics mine). This 'hypothesis' is not idle speculation, but what Burke would call 'a way of sizing up reality' in order to act within it (1974: 4), or as Goodman puts it, to 'cope with' a given 'experience' (1971: 171-2).

The importance of this suggestion lies in its link to a kind of 'critical realism' or even a 'promiscuous realism' (Graeber 2001: 52-53, Dupre 1981: 82): for Proudhon, 'nature, taken as a whole' can be seen to 'lend itself to an indefinite variety of schemes of categorization (1927: 162, translation mine; May and Lance 1995: 980). Because 'there is no single way, even no normal way, of representing the world we experience,' because representation (and 'perception' and 'comprehension'per se) is 'a selection from chaos, a definition from the amorphous, a concretion within the "terrible fluidity" of life,' it has the power to help shape our experience, to redetermine how we interpret and respond to it (Read 1964: 21; Landauer 1974: 7-11, 78, translation mine; Read 1967: 31). In this sense, it matters greatly what 'hypothesis about how the world is' a text happens to embody. The 'representation of life' that it suggests to us, often independently of its explicit propositional content (and indeed, often largely independently of any conscious intention on the part of the author or authors), is highly political; 'every fiction prescribes as well as (or more than) it describes' - or prescribes by describing, acquires its performative force through its constativity. That is to say, a text embodies 'a worldview,' a 'view of what life 'really' is' - and, implicitly, of what it 'should be' (Wilson 1991: 54-55, 57).

11.

By 'life,' we mean not only the actual but the plural potentials which are dormant within it.

'Life,' here, is to be thought in fully natural, ecological terms, as 'a vast, complicated whole,' 'a world of becoming and transition in which multiple diversities coexist, a world of the never-completed, of the incalculable and the inextricable'; it is a process of 'uninterrupted creation' (Voline 2005, 434-435; Landauer 1974: 77, translation mine). This living reality is conceived of as comprising both 'actuality,' that which is, and 'potentialities,' that which could be; the real cannot be reduced to either without falsification (Bookchin 1996: 21; Clark 1976: 27-28; McLaughlin 2002: 104-106; Graeber 2001, Toward an Anthropological Theory 52, 260). There is no potential which does not emerge from some concrete actuality; conversely, there is no actuality which does not harbour multiple potentialities, a 'multitude of modes of being and possibilities,' even if some of these possibilities are indeed 'monstrous' (Bookchin 1971: 284; Colson 2004: 12, Colson 2001: 246; Cochrane 2000: 168). To reduce history to a linear structure with a predetermined goal, in the manner of Comte, Hegel, or (at times) Marx and Engels, is to obscure the dimension of potentiality; on the other hand, to reduce history to a collection of infinitely interpretable, undecideable 'texts,' in the manner of Paul de Man, Jean Baudrillard, or (at times) Richard Rorty, is to overlook the dimension of actuality. Reality, from an anarchist perspective, is neither rigidly determined nor a shapeless void; it is a vast 'sum of transformations' which can neither be 'predetermined nor preconceived,' a 'field [which] is open before human spontaneity': 'the field of the possible' (Bakunin 1908: III.216; Proudhon 1935: III.407, translations mine; McLaughlin 2002: 104).

12.

Here, anarchist literary theory joins a larger anarchist critique of ideology: to the extent that we can speak of a 'false consciousness,' this falsehood consists in a.) the creation of relationships which are taken to be inescapably fixed (or, ontologically, the reduction of life's possibilities to the actually existing) or b.) the attempt to escape from all relationship (the reduction of life's reality to pure potentiality, unanchored to any actuality).

Anarchist analyses do not locate power, potentia, in a sovereign, nor do they reduce it to an epiphenomenon of economics; instead, they view it as 'immanent in society,' emerging from the matrix of relationships (Proudhon 1935:11.261, translation mine; Landauer quoted, in Lunn 1973: 226; Colson 2001: 31-33, translations mine). This 'social power' or 'collective force,' however, has been alienated from itself, so that it is consistently located outside of the social (Bakunin 1970: 43n; Proudhon 1935: II.269, translation mine; de Cleyre 2004: 69). This internment of power within a 'place of power' or displacement of power into a 'centre elsewhere' (God, human nature, the workings of the dialectic, etc.), itself a mystification of social life, is underwritten by other forms of false consciousness: certain conceptions of the world according to which 'freedom seems not only impossible ... but pernicious,' in a cycle of social reproduction, emerge to support the very 'social order' which 'has permitted and profited from' the circulation of these conceptions (Newman 2001:6; Derrida 1978: 279; Cunillera 1977: 289, translation mine). Among the many vehicles for the circulation of 'ideologies' - particularly in their claim to present a 'mirror of life' - are poetry, drama, and fiction (Birrell 1999:198; Baginski 1906: 36).

If reality, however ambiguous and 'promiscuous,' is not entirely formless and empty, if it has certain features that can be falsified, then any claim to imitate reality as it is, to hold up a 'mirror' to 'life,' must be regarded with suspicion; as Voline insists, 'we must discover and frame ... everything that ought to be regarded as phoney, at odds with life's reality and in need of rejection ... [and] everything that ought to be registered as just, wholesome, acceptable' (de Cleyre 1914: 361; Voline 2005: 435). What is a priori 'false, fictitious, impossible and abstract', for anarchists, is what is taken to be 'fixed, complete, whole, inalterable' - in short, the 'Absolute' that Hegel stood at the end of his dialectic (Proudhon 1946: 50-51, translation mine). 'What we seek,' Proudhon writes, 'is a means of purging the ideas ... in other words, it is to eliminate the ABSOLUTE from the consideration of things' (1935: III.249, translation mine).

As Colson writes, we are in the presence of what can be called false consciousness when 'the "relative" is transformed into the "absolute," the "resultant" into an originating "principle," the effect into the cause, and the product of human activity into the dominatory foundation of this activity' (2004: 62). Thus, for instance, gold coin, as 'money,' the universal 'standard' of value, is taken to be the source of wealth: 'imagination attributing to the metal that which is the effect of collective thought manifested through the metal,' this object is fetishistically endowed with a power it does not have (Proudhon 1926: II.88-89, translation mine). Other forms of false consciousness entail obscuring one of the two aspects of the real - either collapsing the potential into the actual (reifying the status quo into an unchanging order or an inescapable necessity) or dispersing the actual into mere potentialities (the denial of every concrete limitation or determination in favour of an abstractly limitless possibility). Bakunin indicts the latter in his attack on theological idealism, which 'disdains all that exists' as mere finite particularity, seeking instead to found things in the 'complete negation' of the existing, i.e., God as 'the highest abstraction of the mind' or 'absolute nothingness'; he indicts the former in his critique of materialist determinism, which reduces 'the human point of view,' the standpoints of human subjects, to 'inevitable,' objective necessity, thereby eliminating the categories of the ethical 'should,' the 'ideal,' 'consciousness,' will, and desire (1972: 272, 309-313).

13.

This both implies and is implicated in an anarchist aesthetic which emerged most clearly in the late nineteenth century theory of art social, defined as the rejection both of Naturalism (which 'realistically' reifies life into actuality) and of Symbolism (which seeks to escape into an 'ideal' realm of potentiality), and as the affirmation of an art which would make visible the potentials within the actual, evoking the 'ideal' within the 'real.'

For Proudhon, since 'the ideal ... has its base, its cause, its power of development, in the real,' a genuinely realist art would have as its 'goal,' in fact, to evoke 'the ideal' (1935: III.585; 1939: 59, translation mine). Kropotkin identified 'this idea which so much shocked Western readers when Proudhon developed it' as a 'realism ... [with] an idealistic aim' (1916: 295, 86). From this perspective, realism cannot be 'reduced to a simple photography' of the actual; indeed, to do so would be to exclude the dimension of potentiality or 'the ideal' which is 'inherent in things,' and thereby to reify reality; likewise, to 'depart from the truth by way of the ideal,' in the manner of premodern art, was to shield the actual world from the critical gaze, superimposing an unchanging 'dogma' on the flux of appearances (Litvak 1988: 26-27; Lazare 1896: 29; Proudhon 1939: 61, 188, translations mine).

Elaborating on this conception a generation later, anarchists attacked both the Naturalist aesthetic of Emile Zola and Gerhard Hauptmann and the Symbolist aesthetic of Stephane Mallarme for their radical 'incompleteness': where the one, focusing our gaze on 'the lowest and most degenerate aspects' of the present reality, tends to issue in a resigned acceptance of the actual - 'tout comprendre, tout pardonner' - the other, seeking to escape the banality of everyday appearances, issues in a strikingly parallel affirmation of 'the old Romantic theory, the foundation of which is Christian: life is abject, one must go outside of life' (Granier 2003: II, 'Introduction"; Lunn 1973: 45; Lazare 1896: 27-28; Kropotkin, Ideals 86; Lunn 1973: 45; Lazare 1896: 28, translations mine).

Instead of a falsely polarized aesthetic realism or idealism, Proudhon argued, what was needed was an art which would combine 'observation' with 'inspiration,' revealing the possible within the actual (Litvak 1988: 26-27; Lazare 1896: 29; Proudhon 1939: 61, 188, 190-192, translations mine). Just as anarchists practice a prefigurative politics, they proposed to create 'a prefigurative art [un art de precurseur],' an art which would evoke the imagination of and a 'longing for' a better world (Lazare 1896: 31, translation and italics mine; Jacoby 2005: 85).

14.

Herein lies what could be called the Utopian dimension of anarchist literary theory: not in the sense of positing an abstract ideal without relation to an actual topos, but in the sense that we are always journeying from one topos to another, travelling into the future.

Graeber proposes that an anarchist approach to the study of social texts might be modelled after a certain kind of 'auto-ethnography,' a practice of 'teasing out the tacit logic or principles underlying certain forms of radical practice, and then, not only offering the analysis back to those communities, but using them to formulate new visions ("if one applied the same principles as you are applying to political organization to economics, might it not look something like this?"...)': in other words, a 'utopian extrapolation' of the potential from the actual (2003). 'Utopia,' in Granier's words, 'thus becomes a method" (2003: II, 'Introduction,' translation and italics mine). It is in this sense that for anarchists, the act of interpretation is also a creative act (Dadoun 1997).

Footnote

NOTES

1. See, for instance, Carol Vanderveer Hamilton's 'American Writers, Modernism, and Representations of the Sacco-Vanzetti Case' in this journal (vol. 8, no. 1, March 2000, pp. 3-25); H. Gustav Klaus's study of'Silhouettes of Anarchism in the Work of Three British Writers' in Gisela Hermann-Brennecke and Wolf Kindermann, eds., Anglo-American Awareness: Arpeggios in Aesthetics (Munster, Germany: LIT, 2005, pp. 171-92); and the volume edited by Klaus with Stephen Knight, 'To Hell With Culture': Anarchism in Twentieth-Century British Literature (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2005); or Arthur Efron's 'War is the Health of the State: An Anarchist Reading of Henry IV, Part One' (in Works and Days vol. 10, no. 1, Spring 1992, pp. 7-75).

2. The dead end could be described as follows: embarrassed by the textualist excesses of the '80s, theorists have pursued a certain 'return to order' via a.) a textualized historical materialism, b.) a conversion of 'literary studies into cultural studies' (Easthope 1991), and c.) engagement in identity politics while gingerly seeking to avoid commitments to essentialism, totalizing narratives, and representation. Now we hear complaints from several quarters of a 'theory mess' (Rapaport 2001), reflecting a sense that in trying to have it both ways, accommodating relativism to realism and vice versa, the whole enterprise has become incoherent. The anarchist tradition, grounded in concrete ethico-political commitments and possessed of surprisingly powerful critical instruments, can point the way out of the maze.

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