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Abstract: In this article it is to be argued that not all Irish-language activism in Belfast is revolutionary, but that rather, to use Williams' terminology, it has both alternative and oppositional ideologies as major components. While both alternative and oppositional Irish-language activists have recovered the Irish language and are using it to challenge the legitimacy of British cultural hegemony in Northern Ireland, the difference lies in their ultimate goals.
The reaction of the British State to the challenge of Irish-language activists has varied depending on the form and perceived intent of Irish-language activist groups. While prior to 1980, attempts were made to exclude the Irish language and culture from Northern Ireland, since 1989 the State's approach has been a re-interpretation of the Irish language and culture into the Northern Ireland context. Mixed reaction to the British government's efforts has resulted in an impasse.
Introduction
The general focus of this article is an investigation of Irish-language activism in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and the British State's response to this symbolic challenge to its cultural hegemony. The analysis will address the way in which Belfast cultural groups, Sinn Fein and the British government perceive and construct Irish-language activism.(f.1) Concentrating on the nature and form of Irish-language activism and how it is perceived and responded to by those in power, and drawing on the work of Raymond Williams (1977, 1980), this ethnographic study will suggest ways in which the multiple meanings of resistance in areas where liberation struggles are being fought, can be delineated and analyzed. The study is based on 15 months of in-depth research conducted in the war-torn environment of Belfast between February 1990 and May 1991.
A. British Cultural Hegemony: The Struggle for Legitimacy
1. The Theoretical Framework: Raymond Williams' Model of Cultural Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony
Elaborating on Gramsci's concept of hegemony, Raymond Williams (1977, 1980) developed a theoretical model in which he analyzed the relationship between power and culture. Williams asserted that "in any society, in any particular period, there is a central system of practices, meanings and values, which we can properly call dominant and effective" (Williams 1980:38). This social process of selection, while being tied to "relationsof dominance and subordination," is at the same time "meaningful" to both those in power and the...