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1 Introduction
Learning and sharing information are two core concepts in organizational change and benchmarking adoption ([44] Patterson, 1996).
First developed by Xerox Corporation in 1979 ([31] Kouzmin et al. , 1999), benchmarking is a systematic and continuous process of assessment of a firm's products, services and methods, compared to those of the best-in-class. [16] Bullivant (1994, p. 1) further sustains that:
More simply benchmarking is finding and implementing best practices.
[58] Wynn-Williams (2005, p. 485) recognizes a central principle of benchmarking in the assessment of performance against external criteria. This concept can be indifferently applied to the private or public sector depending on what is benchmarked.
[3] Balm (1992) remarks that the benchmarking process involves a comparative investigation which aims to analyse the gap between an organization's present level of performance and the best that exist, named benchmark or standard. Finally, benchmarking is a way to study the methods of the market leaders, adapt their ideas so that these rapidly become the best.
[40] McNair and Leibfried (1992, p. 16) highlight the management implications of benchmarking, stressing that:
[...] benchmarking provides a new vision or perspective on traditional management concerns. Traditionally management has relied on internal expertise, bolstered by occasional outside intervention, to establish strategic objectives, and monitor performance [...] Gaining the knowledge needed to choose among the competing opportunities starts with understanding your own organization.
[28] Harrington and Harrington (1995) sustain that benchmarking tries to solve the fundamental questions connected to the ways in which an organization defines the performances of its organizational areas, sustains the organizational improvement and manages the change.
In a public sector organization, the change involves a highly thorough analysis of the quality issues ([55] Weller, 1996): this consideration ties benchmarking to the total quality management, the improvement process and the design strategy ([37] Marchitto, 2001; [9] Bocchino, 1994; [36] Magd and Curry, 2003).
[18] Camp (1995) stresses that:
Now benchmarking has a specific, defined role that directly supports and markedly contributes to the goals of the firm. If best practices are found and implemented in the basic business processes, then there is a direct contribution to the firm's priorities and its results from benchmarking.
Benchmarking is such a flexible tool that it finds a wide application in...