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Much of the literature on September 11 focuses on bin Laden as a terrorist or on the idea of a clash of civilizations. In criticizing both, this paper instead conceptualizes bin Laden as a "civilizational revolutionary." As a revolutionary, bin Laden has sought to topple moderate regimes in the Middle East and to reestablish the caliphate. In contrast with most other national or transnational revolutionaries, however, he has emphasized culture-militant Islamism. Nevertheless, as the literature on social revolutions suggests, bin Laden has used the big strategy of most other revolutionaries in "externalizing" regional conflicts with his attacks on the United States. But his tactic of apocalyptic terrorism has made him unique as a revolutionary.
The shocking event of September 11 raises this important question: Why was America the object of such hate? Given the fact that all of the terrorists came from the Middle East or Islamic world, that Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda had popular support in different quarters of this region, and that many throughout the region felt a sense of glee even as they condemned the attacks in public, the answer to a large degree should center on the Middle East and Islamic world.
Discussions of and the literature on bin Laden and September 11 have focused on two ideas. On the one hand, September 11 has been portrayed as a "clash of civilizations."1 In Samuel Huntington's concept of it, the West is despised because its values conflict with Islamic ones. This perspective has some merits: bin Laden certainly tried to foment a clash of civilizations with his attacks on September 11. Moreover, bin Laden thought in civilizational or regional terms as opposed to national ones, and militant Islamists have hated the West for largely cultural reasons. Nevertheless, bin Laden did not represent the views of the Middle East and Islamic world with his actions. The growing literature on "Why they hate us?" often fails to distinguish between al-Qaeda or Islamists and everyone else in the region. In attacking the United States, bin Laden hoped to provoke a U.S. response that would polarize the region, thus weakening the moderates and secular forces. In addition to secular elements, the moderates have included proWestern autorcrats and some Islamists who have espoused pluralism. Given...