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GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES IN CRIMINOLOGY* In the past 20 years, several theories of criminal (and antisocial) behavior have been proposed from an evolutionary perspective, some of which specifically stipulate that people vary in their genetic dispositions toward criminality. It is these theories, herein called gene-based evolutionary theories, that are the focus of this article. Two categories of gene-based evolutionary theories are described. One category is crime specific, pertaining to the offenses of rape, spousal assault/murder, and child abuse/neglect. The second category consists of two general theories of criminal and antisocial behavior: the cheater (or cad vs. dad) theory, and the r/K theory. In addition to assuming that genes contribute to variation in criminal (and antisocial) behavior, all five of these theories assume that natural selection has acted on human populations to open up reproductive niches for individuals and groups who victimize others. While the theories are still far too new to have been fully tested, we derive some of the most obvious hypotheses from each theory and explore the relevant empirical evidence. We show that while gene-based evolutionary theories often make predictions similar to strictly environmental theories, they also lead to unique hypotheses, several of which have at least some support.
According to modern (or gene-based) evolutionary theory, natural selection can operate on traits only if the traits are genetically influenced (Daly and Wilson, 1983:341) and only if the genes are not universally present in a population (Browne, 1995:985). In the case of behavior, nearly all of the effects of genes are quite indirect because they are mediated through complex chains of events occurring in the brain. This means that there are almost certainly no genes for something as complex as criminal behavior. Nevertheless, many genes may affect brain functioning in ways that either increase or reduce the chances of individuals learning various complex behavior patterns, including behavior patterns that happen to be so offensive to others that criminal sanctions have been instituted to minimize their recurrence (Ellis, 1990d).
This review may not appeal to most criminologists because it rests on the assumption that genetic factors influence criminal behavior. A survey found that only about 20% of criminologists are receptive to the notion that genetic factors have important influences on criminal behavior (Ellis and Hoffman,...