Content area
Full text
Introduction
The pathway to adulthood criminality is arguably rooted in an individual’s childhood. A substantial body of work offers some explanations as to how and why people’s antisocial behaviour stems from their early familial experiences (Farrington, 2003; Fox et al., 2015). When compared with normative populations, for example, offender groups report nearly four times more adverse childhood experiences (including problematic relationships and an absence of affection) that are strongly associated with antisocial behaviour in later life (Reavis et al., 2013). Yet, even in studies of people not at high risk of offending, multiple types of adverse childhood experiences (including household dysfunction and neglect) are associated with an elevated risk for a range of antisocial conduct, including delinquent behaviours, bullying, fighting and weapon-carrying (Duke et al., 2010). These findings indicate multiple risk factors associated with negative parenting styles in childhood that may contribute to adulthood antisocial conduct, in both offender and normative populations. These include poor attachment and parentification – a family process in which children or adolescents assume adult responsibilities and/or parental roles that may be developmentally inappropriate (Boszormenyi-Nagy and Spark, 1973). The influence of emotional resilience as a protective factor has also been emphasised, as this may mitigate the risk posed by detrimental childhood experiences on antisociality (Leitch, 2017; Lösel and Farrington, 2012). The extent to which these factors individually or collectively explain antisocial conduct in offender and normative samples has not yet been explored in a single study. Furthermore, studies of attachment, emotional resilience and parentification could help inform risk assessment and management of offenders who present with such characteristics in the criminal justice system, forming the rationale for this pilot investigation.
Avoidant or anxious attachment styles
The importance of a healthy infant-caregiver attachment is well-documented. Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969) provides a useful framework to consider the potential negative and positive impacts that arise in the aftermath of poor childhood attachments. In his theory, Bowlby (1969) proposes that an infant’s relationship to their primary caregiver is critical to current and future functioning, serving as a prototype for subsequent social relationships. Indeed, studies have shown that children who experience secure attachments develop confidence, emotional security and positive interpersonal skills, fostering the ability to empathise with others and appropriately manage stress (Marshall,...