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Summary
A dynamic, process-oriented approach to understanding emotional labor is presented, utilizing concepts from control theory models of behavioral self-regulation. Emotional labor is characterized as involving a discrepancy monitoring and reduction process, whereby perceptions of emotional displays and emotional display rules are continuously compared. If a discrepancy between emotional displays and display rules is detected, individuals are proposed to use emotion regulation strategies to reduce the discrepancy. The goal hierarchy aspect of control theory is used to describe emotional labor in the broader context of job performance and explain how positive and negative outcomes can result from the emotional labor process. Propositions are developed throughout the paper. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley &Sons, Ltd.
Introduction
Organizational behavior researchers are increasingly recognizing the importance of emotions in everyday work life (Arvey, Renz, &Watson, 1998; Fisher &Ashkanasy, 2000; Lord, Klimoski, &Kanfer, 2002). One area of emotion research that has received attention in recent years is emotional labor, or the management of emotions as part of the work role (Hochschild, 1983). Recent theory (e.g., Grandey, 2000; Morris &Feldman, 1996) and empirical work (e.g., Diefendorff &Richard, 2003; Pugh, 2001) suggest that the management of emotions and emotional displays is important for success in numerous jobs.
Hochschild (1983) defined emotional labor as 'the management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display' for a wage (p. 7). Employees engage in emotional labor to influence the emotions of others (e.g., customers, coworkers) so that work goals can be achieved (e.g., sell a product, make a group decision). Organizations specify emotional display rules that identify which emotions are appropriate in particular situations as well as how those emotions should be expressed to others (Ekman, 1973). Emotional labor entails following these display rules, which, depending upon how one feels, may require the use of emotion regulation strategies such as faking an unfelt emotion or suppressing an inappropriate felt emotion (Gross, 1998). For example, the display rules for the typical customer service employee involve expressing positive emotions, such as cheerfulness, and avoiding the expression of negative emotions, such as contempt. When the person is in a positive mood, these display requirements may be met by expressing naturally felt emotions. However, if the person is in a negative mood, he/she may...