Content area
Full text
1. Introduction
The growing ubiquity of mobile technologies, such as smartphones and tablets, has affected the way people study and learn a second language (L2) (e.g. Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2017). In many cases, mobile technology extends learning beyond the classroom, and learners are able to make autonomous decisions about where, when, and how to study an L2 (Reinders & Benson, 2017). Indeed, the popularity of commercial online language learning programs attests to the interest that exists in using technology for autonomous language study. For example, in 2018 the free language learning application (app) Duolingo claimed to have 200 million active users (Smith, 2018), whereas subscription-based Babbel cites one million (https://about.babbel.com/en/about-us/). Consequently, it is important to evaluate the effectiveness of such technology for L2 learning. As Heift and Chapelle (2012) state, “The need exists to better understand the new conditions for second language acquisition (SLA) brought about by the real language-related capabilities of technologies that many learners have access to on a daily basis” (p. 565). More recently, Plonsky and Zeigler (2016) asserted that research needs to be concerned with “how the affordances of technology might best be exploited to provide learners with optimal language learning opportunities” (p. 17). In response to these challenges, the current study investigates the effectiveness of one specific language learning program, namely Duolingo, for L2 learning.
1.1 Mobile-assisted language learning
Growing with the advent of handheld mobile technologies is the recognition of such devices as useful tools for learning at any time or in any place. Over the past 15 years, the use of mobile technology has significantly increased, with mobile-internet devices exceeding the number of traditional desktop and laptop computers (Pegrum, 2014). This increase has created an interest in mobile learning (m-learning); that is, using mobile technology (e.g. smartphones, tablets) for educational purposes such as teaching and learning (Duman, Orhon & Gedik, 2015; Godwin-Jones, 2011; Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson & Freynik, 2014). One specific area of significant growth is mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) in which learners use mobile technology to engage in language study (Burston, 2015; Duman et al., 2015; Shadiev, Hwang & Huang, 2017).
Definitions of MALL vary somewhat; however, key components consistently include (a) flexibility in time and location of study; (b) continuity of study on different devices,...