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Urolithiasis (urinary tract calculi or stones) and nephrolithiasis (kidney calculi or stones) are well-documented common occurrences in the general population of the United States. The etiology of this disorder is mutifactorial and is strongly related to dietary lifestyle habits or practices. Proper management of calculi that occur along the urinary tract includes investigation into causative factors in an effort to prevent recurrences. Urinary calculi or stones are the most common cause of acute ureteral obstruction. Approximately 1 in 1,000 adults in the United States are hospitalized annually for treatment of urinary tract stones, resulting in medical costs of approximately $2 billion per year (Ramello, Vitale, & Marangella, 2000; Tanagho & McAninch, 2004).
The term nephrolithiasis (kidney calculi or stones) refers to the entire clinical picture of the formation and passage of crystal agglomerates called calculi or stones in the urinary tract (Wolf, 2004). Urolithiasis (urinary calculi or stones) refers to calcifications that form in the urinary system, primarily in the kidney (nephrolithiasis) or ureter (ureterolithiasis), and may also form in or migrate into the lower urinary system (bladder or urethra) (Bernier, 2005). Urinary tract stone disease has been documented historically as far back as the Egyptian mummies (Wolf, 2004).
Prevalence
As much as 10% of the U.S. population will develop a kidney stone in their lifetime. Upper urinary tract stones (kidney, upper ureter) are more common in the United States than in the rest of the world. Researchers attribute the incidence of nephrolithiasis in the United States to a dietary preference of foods high in animal protein (Billica, 2004).
Age and Gender
The literature reflects the incidence of kidney (renal) stone formation to be greater among white males than black males and three times greater in males than females. Although kidney stone disease is one-fourth to one-third more prevalent in adult white males, black males demonstrate a higher incidence of stones associated with urinary tract infections caused by ureasplitting bacteria (Munver & Preminger, 2001).
Kidney stones are most prevalent between the ages of 20 to 40, and a substantial number of patients report onset of the disease prior to the age of 20 (Munver & Preminger, 2001; Pak, 1979, 1987). The lifetime risk for kidney stone formation in the adult white male approaches 20%...