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Extra-musical associations of modes and other musical elements have been a part of the early history of Western music-as seen in Greek writings and the early music of the church-and in non-Western cultures., This cross-cultural phenomenon has been discussed by Bruno Nettl as one aspect of the particular power of music "to symbolize in distilled and abstract form the character and values of a culture" (Nettl 1983:182; see also Powers 1981:525; Sharma 1981:525-30; and Becker 1981:530-36). Inherent in these extra-musical associations are, according to Powers, three interrelated domains: "the universal macrocosm of times, seasons, and the heavens; the human microcosm of humors, passions, and psychological character; and the domain of symbolic actions accompanied by music, that is, of liturgy and drama" (1981:525). Extra-musical associations illustrate important features such as music's meaning in a culture, a way to imbue music with significance.
The organization of extra-musical associations is interconnected with the systematic use of modes. The structuring of liturgy with a modal framework is a feature common to rituals of many cultures. For example, modes are used to organize Christian chant by season (Apel 1958; Powers 1980:382-83) or by specific chant type (Treitler 1975; Crocker 1986; Robertson 1988); nusab signifies a time of the week, year, or a holiday in Ashkenazic Jewish services, through known melodic phrases set to particular prayers (Cohon 1950; Avenary 1971; Levine 1980-1981); raga demarcates the daily prayer cycle in addition to ragas' evocable sentiments (Sharma 1981:525); pathet organizes a performance of wayang kulit in South East Asia (along and Lysloff 1991; Becker 1980); maqam guides the recitation of the Qur'an (Nelson 1982, 1985). The use of modes in religious traditions provides symbolic meaning that carries powerful associations that are often enduring. An investigation of the modal practices within a tradition needs to consider the various contexts of that tradition to uncover historical meaning and characteristics of present usage. Local practices may play a prominent role in creating unique associations not found in a wider cultural context.
Syrian Jews carefully maintain an effective combination of extra-musical associations within a modal tradition that also serves to organize and shape liturgy: by associating a maqam with the weekly biblical reading, the associated maqam then serves as the "maqam of the day" for use in...