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Introduction
Brand image consistency is crucial to the success of any brand ([41] Levine, 1998; [47] McEnally and De Chernatony, 1999; [58] Ritson, 2003). With greater regularity of consumer travel and increasing international media, consumers expect brands to deliver the same values on a worldwide basis ([17] De Chernatony et al. , 1995; [54] Phau and Yip, 2008). Preserving brand image consistency is particularly relevant for luxury brands that are based on brand symbolism ([42] Levy, 1959; [21] Elliott, 1997; [69] Vickers and Renand, 2003; [9] Banister and Hogg, 2004; [15] Dall'Olmo Riley et al. , 2004; [50] Park et al. , 2008). [49] Nueno and Quelch (1998, p. 62) further define luxury brands as "those whose ratio of functional utility to price is low while the ratio of intangible and situational utility to price is high". That is to say, price is not the prime issue for status consumers ([15] Dall'Olmo Riley et al. , 2004). Whereas consumers of fast moving consumer goods may be influenced by the brand's image, they will generally prioritise on functionality and price ([15] Dall'Olmo Riley et al. , 2004). In contrast, consumers of luxury goods will be primarily influenced by the brand's image, while considering functionality as a given prerequisite ([15] Dall'Olmo Riley et al. , 2004). This is in line with [69] Vickers and Renand (2003, p. 473) who state that:
Although luxury and non-luxury goods can be conceptualised on the basis of functional [...] and interactional symbolic dimensions, there is a distinctive difference in the mix of these components.
Specifically, [69] Vickers and Renand (2003) point out that luxury goods are based on symbolic attributes, whereas non-luxury goods mainly rely on functional attributes. As [80] Dubois and Paternault (1995, p. 71) remark "luxury items are bought for what they mean, beyond what they are." Thus, symbolism shapes the luxury character of a brand, enabling luxury brands to maintain status and demand premium prices ([69] Vickers and Renand, 2003).
However, brand image inconsistency is an issue several luxury brands struggle with ([46] Matthiesen and Phau, 2005). Brand image inconsistencies, namely the difference between the identity of a brand and its image, embody the threat of brand dilution or might even change the values incorporated into the brand...