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ABSTRACT
Using a sociocultural framework, the authors describe scientific literacy and the importance of mediated activities for scientific learning. The difference between empirical and theoretical learning is introduced as an important aspect for teachers to understand as they work with students learning scientific concepts. Components of scientific literacy are described, and recommendations for teaching in the zone of proximal development are provided. A conceptual model adapted from ethnomathematics is introduced to demonstrate the effect of theoretical learning on cultural change, using an intergenerational study from Chiapas, Mexico, as an example.
WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO LEARN AND HOW DOES learning occur? According to Vygotsky, a child's mind develops through social experiences that are mediated through psychological tools involving language, mnemonic techniques, concepts, and symbols. These tools are presented to children by adults or more competent peers. Eventually, as children internalize these tools, their mental functions are altered (Karpov & Bransford, 1995). In this manner, children gradually move from informal learning through concrete experiences in the preschool years to formal learning through presentation of theoretical concepts in the school system.
Informal, empirical learning based on experiential observations results in spontaneous concepts; formal, theoretical learning results in scientific concepts. Empirical learning is based on comparing a number of objects, picking out their common observable characteristics, and formulating on this basis a general concept about the class of objects. Empirical learning does not necessarily result in a correct and conscious concept (Panofsky, John-Steiner, & Blackwell, 1990). Relying on empirical learning, children may conclude that a whale is a fish, all small objects sink, or a penguin is not a bird because it swims and does not fly. A primary goal of formal schooling is to develop scientific concepts. Popular constructivist approaches to teaching and learning recommend a discovery approach to science education. Children are provided with concrete activities, and by interacting with the materials and their peers, they are expected to discover scientific principles. Direct teaching of concepts may be discouraged. Such an approach is a misinterpretation of the social constructivist approach. According to Vygotsky (1987), scientific concepts should be given to students ready-made in the form of precise definitions. Then, as a child participates in a discovery activity, the adult verbally maps the concept and...