1. Introduction
Production of chemicals from biomass resources is a promising strategy for solving the problem of the depletion of fossil fuels. Malic acid as a biomass-derived molecule can be produced via the bio-fermentation of biomass. Converting renewable biomass-derived malic acid to various malic acid esters has attracted considerable attention because they are widely used in the production of spices, mosquito-repellent incenses, and intermediates of medicines [1,2,3]. Generally, the esterification of malic acid uses a traditional homogenous acid catalyst (such as sulfuric acid, para-toluene sulfonic acid, and phosphoric acid) to promote the reaction rate in industry. Although homogenous (liquid) acids show excellent catalytic activity for malic acid esterification, unfortunately, they present two main drawbacks: (1) These liquid catalysts are difficult to separate from the reaction mediums, and inevitably suffer from the problem of non-recyclability and environmental unfriendliness; (2) excess high-acid strength will cause undesirable side reactions, among which mainly include intramolecular dehydration and intermolecular dehydration of alcohols. In comparison, heterogeneous (solid) acid catalysts can overcome the un-recyclability of liquid acid and are, accordingly, strongly recommended as the candidates. Besides, some other general green methodologies such as catalyst-free esterification have attracted the attention of increasingly more people [4,5].
To date, various solid acid catalysts comprising metallic oxides (e.g., TiO2, MoO3, ZrO2−SiO2) [6,7,8,9], sulfated metallic oxides, mesoporous carbons (e.g., SO42−/ZrO2, SO42−/SnO2, SO42−/La2O3/HZSM-5, SO42−/C) [10,11,12,13,14,15,16], inorganic salts (e.g., Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Ce(SO4)2∙4H2O) [17,18], acidic resins (e.g., Amberlyst-15) [19,20,21], and molecular sieves {e.g., HZSM-5, SnTUD-1, -SO3H-functionalized Cr(III)-MOF (Metal-Organic Frameworks)} [22,23,24,25,26] have been utilized for the catalytic esterification of fatty acids. In particular, the Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalyst has been evidenced to have extraordinarily catalytic activity for esterification [27,28].
In spite of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O exhibiting excellent catalytic performance for the esterification of fatty acid, unfortunately, it partially solutes in water, which comes from the product of esterification leading to inferior reusability [29]. Currently, an effective strategy for overcoming the leaching of Zr(SO4)2 is to immobilize Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O on various porous materials. Juan et al. synthesized the supported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O/HMS catalyst and applied it to the catalytic esterification of oleic acids, and the supported catalyst could be reused in four consecutive cycles with almost no loss of activity, which is dramatically superior to the unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O [28]. Furthermore, not only the improvement in the reusability but also an obvious enhancement in the catalytic performance of the supported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts compared to unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O could be observed [30]. Sohn et al. found that the catalytic activity of Zr(SO4)2/γ-Al2O3 was higher than that of bulk Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O for 2-propanol dehydration and cumene dealkylation, and they suggested that the higher acid strength of Zr(SO4)2/γ-Al2O3 than unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O may be responsible for enhancing the activity [31]. Lavrenov and coworkers have reported that the selectivity of alkylation over a Zr(SO4)2/silica gel catalyst appeared to be better than that of the unsupported catalyst for the alkylation of isobutane with butene, and the intrinsic investigation revealed that the more uniform distribution of strong acid centers on the supported catalysts ensured highly selective alkylation [32]. In general, the interaction between Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O and the support can modify the acid properties of the catalyst, which may bring about a positive effect on the activity and selectivity.
Herein, the present work is devoted to synthesizing recyclable solid acid catalysts (Zr(SO4)2/activated carbon (AC) and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2) for the esterification of malic acid to dimethyl malate with high selectivity. The catalytic performance of these two catalysts was examined and compared to that of traditional H2SO4 and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts. Furthermore, X-ray diffraction (XRD), N2 physical adsorption, X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS), and pyridine adsorption infrared (IR) techniques were executed on Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/AC, and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts to determine the structure and acid properties of these catalysts. The crucial function of the AC and SiO2 support tuning the selectivity was extensively and thoroughly investigated. In addition, the influence of different experimental parameters on the catalytic behavior was evaluated in order to find the most suitable conditions for dimethyl malate production. In addition, the reusability of Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts was examined. 2. Results and Discussion
The crystalline structures of various Zr(SO4)2 catalysts are shown in Figure 1, where pattern (1) is the typical XRD pattern of an orthorhombic phase of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (PDF#08-0495), and all of the diffraction peaks can be assigned to an orthorhombic phase of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O. For Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts, only weaker diffraction peaks around 2θ = 20.5°, 25.7°, and 30.0° assigned to the Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O phase were detected. The attendance of diffraction peaks attributed to the Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O phase in Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC samples suggests that Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O was successfully supported on SiO2 and AC. Furthermore, diffraction peaks attributed to Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC samples are weaker than those of the unsupported sample, manifesting that Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O was well dispersed on AC and SiO2.
Zr(SO4)2 loading and textural properties of SiO2, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, AC, and Zr(SO4)2/AC samples are summarized in Table 1. The Zr amounts in Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts were detected by inductive coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) analysis, and the active species Zr(SO4)2 loadings on these two catalysts were then calculated according to the Zr amounts. The actual Zr(SO4)2 loadings on Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts were ca. 30% (Table 1). The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area, pore volume, and pore size were determined according to N2 physical adsorption isotherms (Figure S1). The surface areas of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 (139 m2/g) and Zr(SO4)2/AC (468 m2/g) catalysts are drastically smaller than those of SiO2 (214 m2/g) and AC (1053 m2/g) supports, respectively, but which are still higher than that of bulk Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (5–11 m2/g) [28]. Higher surface area is favorable for dispersing active sites and tends to give higher catalytic activity. On the other hand, the mesopore volume and size of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 are obviously lower than those of the SiO2 support, which indicates that Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O deposits on the mesopores of SiO2. For the Zr(SO4)2/AC catalyst, the micropore volume and size of Zr(SO4)2/AC are slightly lower than those of AC; however, the mesopore volume and size of Zr(SO4)2/AC are obviously lower than those of AC. These results manifest that Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O prefers to deposit on the mesopores than the micropores of AC. As we know, the presence of mesopores in a catalyst is significantly important for the liquid phase catalytic reaction, because mesopores facilitate the mass transfer in the liquid phase, which is beneficial to the contact between the catalyst and reactant.
Figure 2 shows the catalytic performance of H2SO4, Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts for conversion of malic acid. The conversion of malic acid over Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC solid acid catalysts is comparable to that over H2SO4 and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts (Figure 2a) from 20 to 120 min; however, the selectivities of dimethyl malate (DM) over Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts are both 99% at 120 min, which are 0.24 and 0.19 times higher than those of the conventional H2SO4 (75%) catalyst and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (80%) catalyst, respectively, highlighting the critical role of AC and SiO2 supports in tuning the selectivity. Besides, the yield of DM over Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts is obviously higher than those over H2SO4 and Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts (Figure 2c). Consequently, pyridine adsorption IR and XPS were carried out on the supported and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts to investigate the function of AC and SiO2 support.
The main side product was 2-methoxy dimethyl succinate (DS) whose structure is graphed in Equation (2) over the Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalyst by the GC-MS (gas chromatography with mass spectrometry) result. We speculate that DS may have come from the intermolecular dehydration of malic acid with methanol. Thus, the esterification main reaction (Equation (1)) competed with the intermolecular dehydration side reaction (Equation (2)) over the Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalyst. As we know, esterification and intermolecular dehydration reaction rates both strongly rely on the properties of acid catalysts. The mechanism for the esterification of acid with alcohol over an acid catalyst is as follows: A proton bonds with O from carbonyl to enhance the electron-deficiency of C from carbonyl, which is beneficial to the nucleophilic attack of alcohol [33]. The mechanism for the intermolecular dehydration of alcohol over the acid catalyst is that the proton bonds with the O from hydroxyl to facilitate dehydration [34,35].
COOHCH(OH)CH2COOH + 2CH3OH → COOCH3CH(OH)CH2COOCH3 + 2H2O
COOHCH(OH)CH2COOH + 3CH3OH → COOCH3CH(OCH3)CH2COOCH3 + 3H2O
The acidity of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts was examined by pyridine adsorption IR, as shown in Figure 3. The band at 1539 cm−1 is the characteristic peak of pyridinium ions, which are adsorbed on the Brønsted (B) acid sites, while the characteristic peak at 1445 cm−1 is assigned to pyridine coordinately bonded to Lewis (L) acid sites [36]. As shown in Figure 3, L and B acid sites both exist on the surface of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC. According to the previous research, L acid sites of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O come from the electron-deficiency of Zr4+. B acid sites of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O originate from the interaction of crystal water with Zr4+, and the increase in electron-deficiency of Zr4+ enhances the degree of H delocalization from crystal water and then increases the B acid strength [30,31,37]. The concentrations of B and L acid sites can be obtained by Equations (3) and (4) based on the integrated absorbance of B and L bands [36]. The concentrations of L and B acid sites of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC are listed in Table 2. For all of these three catalysts, the concentrations of B acid sites on these three catalysts are significantly higher than those of L acid sites. As we know, the esterification and intermolecular dehydration reactions occurring at lower temperature were catalyzed by the B acid rather than L acid.
Because Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O reacts with NH3 at higher temperature, NH3-temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD) is not suitable for the determination of acid strength of the catalyst. As in previous discussion, the B acid strength intensely depends on the electron-deficiency of Zr4+ in Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O; therefore, we applied the XPS technique to characterize the electron density on Zr4+, and to then determine the B acid strength of supported and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O. As shown in Figure 4a, the binding energy peaks at ca. 186 and 184 eV in Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC samples are ascribed to Zr4+ 3d3/2 and Zr4+ 3d5/2, respectively [28]. As shown in Figure 4b,c, the binding energy peak at 532.5 eV in AC is attributed to surface hydroxyls [38]; the binding energy peak at 532.5 eV in SiO2 is assigned to O2− ions [39,40].
Binding energies of the Zr3d and O1s regions of various samples are listed in Table 3. Zr 3d5/2 and Zr 3d3/2 binding energies of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC are 0.4 eV lower than those of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, suggesting that the electron density on Zr4+ of supported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O is higher than that of unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O. The O1s binding energy of Zr(SO4)2/AC (533.1 eV) is higher than those of pure AC (532.5 eV) and bulk Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (532.6 eV); similarly, the O1s binding energy of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 (532.9 eV) is also higher than that of pure SiO2 (533.8 eV) and bulk Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (532.6 eV). These results illustrate that surface hydroxyls of AC or O2− ions from SiO2 donate electrons to Zr4+ in Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts, resulting in the decrease in electron density on oxygen and the increase in electron density on Zr4+, which reduces the degree of H delocalization from crystal water and then decreases the B acid strength. The reduced B acid strength of Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts suppresses the intermolecular dehydration side reaction, thereby greatly enhancing the selectivity of dimethyl malate.
The optimization of reaction parameters is very important for commercial feasibility. Figure 5 shows the influence of the catalyst amount of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts on the conversion of malic acid. Catalyst amount is defined as the weight ratio of a supported catalyst system to reactant malic acid. The esterification of malic acid was executed at different catalyst amounts while other parameters were kept constant. The conversion of malic acid by Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts increased along with the enhancing of the catalyst amount from 2 wt.% to 10 wt.%; however, by further increasing the catalyst amount, the conversion of malic acid remains unchanged. This result indicates that the increase in catalyst amount from 2 wt.% to 10 wt.% enhanced the contact chance between the reactant and catalyst, which brings about the enhancement of conversion. By further increasing the catalyst amount, the conversion of malic acid is governed by other reaction conditions such as the mole ratio of methanol to malic acid, which is controlled by chemical reaction equilibrium. It is very interesting for the similar behavior observed for these two tested heterogeneous catalysts on Figure 5. For these two heterogeneous catalysts, the active species Zr(SO4)2 loadings are very similar (~30%), as shown in Table 1. In addition, AC or SiO2 may only act as the role of structural promoter to disperse the active center. Thus, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts show similar catalytic behavior when the active species Zr(SO4)2 loadings on these two heterogeneous catalysts are similar.
As we know, the esterification reaction is reversible and excess alcohol shifts the equilibrium to the right side of the reaction (Le Chatelier’s Principle) in order to obtain a high yield of the ester product [41]. The molar ratio of methanol to malic acid was varied from 7:1 to 20:1 when the other parameters were kept constant. As shown in Figure 6, excess methanol significantly enhances the final conversion of malic acid. The conversion of malic acid over Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts reaches the maximum (~97%) at a 16:1 molar ratio of methanol to malic acid; however, by further increasing the molar ratio of methanol to malic acid, the conversion of malic acid is no longer enhanced.
Figure 7 shows the reusability of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. These two supported catalysts can be easily separated from the reaction system by simple filtration. The recyclability of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts were examined in a new reaction cycle without any treatment, such as calcination or washing. These two catalysts were reused in five consecutive cycles with very little loss of activity, further enhancing the feasibility of these catalysts in the esterification of malic acid. We have also checked the concentration of Zr ions in the solution and the Zr(SO4)2 loadings in the Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts after the reaction by using ICP-OES. There were negligible Zr elements detected in the solution after the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth cycles (Table S1), and the Zr(SO4)2 amounts in the Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts before and after five cycles of reaction were almost not changed (Table S2), which indicates that the leaching of Zr(SO4)2 did not occur.
In order to enhance the feasibility of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts in the esterification of malic acid, we carried out the scale-up and esterification of malic acid with other alcohols (ethanol) experiments. The results and reaction conditions of scale-up and ethanol experiments are shown in Table S3 and Table S4, respectively. The conversion of malic acid achieved ca. 98% and the selectivity of DM reached 99% over the Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts, when the malic acid amount expanded 10 times (10 g). Besides, the malic acid conversion was 97% and diethyl malate selectivity was 99% with the application of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts for malic acid esterification by ethanol, which indicates that the applicability of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts is extended to esterification by other alcohols.
3. Materials and Methods 3.1. Materials Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, SiO2 (Aerogel) of 99% purity, and dimethyl malate of 98% purity were purchased from Aladdin, Shanghai, CN. Malic acid of 98% purity was obtained from Macklin Shanghai, CN. H2SO4 (98%), HNO3 (65–68%), and CH3OH (99.5%) were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent, Shanghai, CN. AC was supplied by Changzhou University, Changzhou, Jiangsu, CN. 3.2. Catalyst Preparation AC needed to be pretreated before use as a support. Typically, AC (10 g) was immersed in the 3 M HNO3 under vigorous stirring at 70 °C for 4 h and was then washed with deionized water until neutral pH. Subsequently, the treated AC was dried at 110 °C in air overnight. The acid treatment can modify the surface properties of AC in favor of active component loading. Acid treatment for AC will introduce hydroxyl groups onto the AC surface, which can strengthen the interaction between the active species and AC support, thus enhancing the active species amount. Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts were prepared by an impregnation method with Zr(SO4)2 as the precursor, which were dried at 110 °C overnight and calcinated at 250 °C for 4 h; ultimately, Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts were obtained. The theoretical Zr(SO4)2 loading on AC or SiO2 was 30 wt.%. 3.3. Catalytic Reaction Catalytic esterification of malic acid with methanol was performed in a 50 mL three-necked flask. Certain amounts of malic acid (7.5 mmol, 1 g) and methanol (123.6 mmol, 5 mL) were added in the vessel. The typical reaction was carried out at reflux temperature with a 0.1 g catalyst under magnetic stirring of 600 rpm. Then, the post-reaction solution was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The HPLC was equipped with a column (Aminex HPX-87H Ion Exclusion column 300 mm × 7.8 mm) and an ultraviolet detector. GC-MS was equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) and HP-5MS column (30 m × 0.25 mm, 0.25 μm). As the decomposition temperature of malic acid is 140 °C, which is much lower than the injection temperature (280 °C) of GC, GC-MS was not suitable for determining the conversion of malic acid. Therefore, the conversion of malic acid was determined by HPLC through the external standard method; the selectivity of dimethyl malate and side products was determined by GC-MS with n-pentane as the internal standard. 3.4. Catalyst Characterization The Zr amounts in the catalysts and the concentration of Zr ions in the solution after the reaction were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES, PerkinElmer ICP-OES 7300DV, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) measurements. The structural information of the catalysts was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Brucker D8 Advance, Madison, WI, USA), using Cu Kα radiation (λ = 1.5405 Å) under 40 kV and 40 mA at room temperature. The N2 physical adsorption/desorption isotherms of samples were obtained by a Micromeritics ASAP 2020 M+C apparatus (Norcross, GA, USA). Pretreatment of samples was conducted in vacuum for 4 h at 200 °C. The specific surface area was calculated by the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method, the mesopore volume and mean mesopore size were determined by the Barrett–Joyner–Halenda (BJH) method from the desorption branch of the isotherms, and the micropore volume and average micropore size were calculated by the t-plot method.
The acidity of the sample was determined by pyridine adsorption infrared (IR) on a Thermo Fisher Nicolet 6700 spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Nicolet, Waltham, MA, USA). Each finely ground sample (ca. 30 mg) was pressed into a thin wafer with a diameter of 1.3 cm, and the thin wafer was then placed into a quartz cell equipped with CaF2 windows. Before pyridine adsorption, the sample was evacuated at 200 °C for 4 h and cooled to room temperature. Then, pyridine as a molecular probe was exposed to the disk at room temperature for 1 h, and the sample was then evacuated at 150 °C for 1 h to remove the physical adsorption species on the surface; ultimately, the infrared spectrum was recorded. The concentrations of Brønsted (B) and Lewis (L) acid sites can be obtained by Equations (3) and (4) based on the integrated absorbance of B and L bands [36].
C (pyridine on B sites) = 1.88 IA (B) R2/W,
C (pyridine on L sites) = 1.42 IA (L) R2/W.
C = concentration (mmol/g catalyst)
IA (B, L) = integrated absorbance of B or L band
R = radius of catalyst disk (cm)
W = weight of disk (mg)
X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS) were obtained with an ESCALAB 250 Xi (Thermal Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) spectrometer equipped with a hemispherical electron analyzer and mono Al Kα 150 W X-ray source. The XPS spectra of AC and Zr(SO4)2/AC samples were calibrated by setting the sp2 hybrid of the C 1s peak to 284.3 eV, and the XPS spectra of SiO2, Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 samples were calibrated by setting the sp3 hybrid of the C 1s peak to 284.8 eV. 4. Conclusions In summary, we applied Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC as solid acid catalysts for malic acid esterification by methanol. These two solid acid catalysts exhibit outstanding catalytic activity, which is comparable to traditional H2SO4 and unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O catalysts. Moreover, a 99% selectivity of dimethyl malate can be realized on these two supported catalysts, which is much higher than that of the unsupported Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O (80%) catalyst, highlighting the critical role of AC and SiO2 supports in tuning the selectivity. Pyridine-adsorbed IR combined with XPS reveals that surface hydroxyls of AC or O2− ions from SiO2 donate electrons to Zr4+ in Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts, resulting in the decrease in electron density on oxygen and the increase in electron density on Zr4+, which reduces the degree of H delocalization from crystal water and then decreases B acid strength. The reduced B acid strength of Zr(SO4)2/AC and Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 catalysts suppresses the intermolecular dehydration side reaction, thereby greatly enhancing the selectivity of dimethyl malate. In addition, these two supported catalysts can be easily separated from the reaction system by simple filtration with almost no loss of activity.
Enlarge this image.Figure 1. XRD patterns of (1) Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, (2) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and (3) Zr(SO4)2/activated carbon (AC).
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Dependence of (a) conversion of malic acid, (b) selectivity of dimethyl malate (DM) and 2-methoxy dimethyl succinate (DS) and (c) yield of dimethyl malate (DM) on reaction time over H2SO4, Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. Reaction conditions: Methanol (5 mL), malic acid (1 g), catalyst amount (0.1 g), reaction time (2 h), reflux temperature, stirring speed (600 rpm).
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Pyridine-adsorbed IR spectra of (1) Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O, (2) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, and (3) Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4.(a) XPS spectra at Zr3d binding energy region, and (b,c) XPS spectra at O1s binding energy region.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Effect of catalyst amount of (a) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and (b) Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts on the conversion of malic acid. Reaction conditions: Methanol amount (5 mL), malic acid amount (1 g), reaction time (2 h), reflux temperature, stirring speed (600 rpm).
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Effect of molar ratio of methanol to malic acid on the conversion of malic acid over (a) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and (b) Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. Reaction conditions: Malic acid amount (1 g), catalyst amount (0.1 g), reaction time (2 h), reflux temperature, stirring speed (600 rpm).
Enlarge this image.Figure 7. Recyclability of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. Reaction conditions: Methanol (5 mL), malic acid (1 g), catalyst amount (0.1 g), reaction time (2 h), reflux temperature, stirring speed (600 rpm).
| Sample | Zr(SO4)2 Loading (wt.%) | BET Surface Area (m2/g) | Pore Volume (mL/g) | Average Pore Size (nm) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vmicro | Vmeso | Dmicro | Dmeso | |||
| SiO2 | - | 214 | - | 1.40 | - | 26.8 |
| Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 | 28.5 | 139 | - | 0.95 | - | 22.5 |
| AC | - | 1053 | 0.34 | 0.21 | 1.39 | 14.8 |
| Zr(SO4)2/AC | 27.9 | 468 | 0.33 | 0.11 | 1.19 | 7.8 |
| Catalyst | B Acid Sites (mmol/g) | L Acid Sites (mmol/g) |
|---|---|---|
| Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O | 0.2011 | 0.0251 |
| Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 | 0.4182 | 0.0103 |
| Zr(SO4)2/AC | 0.3057 | 0.0012 |
| Sample | BEZr3d3/2 (eV) | BEZr3d5/2 (eV) | BEO1s (eV) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O | 186.9 | 184.5 | 532.6 |
| Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 | 186.6 | 184.2 | 532.9 |
| Zr(SO4)2/AC | 186.6 | 184.2 | 533.1 |
| SiO2 | - | - | 532.5 |
| AC | - | - | 532.5 |
Supplementary Materials
The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4344/10/4/384/s1, Figure S1: N2 physical adsorption isotherms of (a) SiO2, (b) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2, (c) AC, and (d) Zr(SO4)2/AC samples; Figure S2: GC-MS spectra of post-reaction solution over (1) Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and (2) Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. Table S1: The concentration of Zr ion in the solution after the reaction; Table S2: The Zr(SO4)2 loadings of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts after the 5 cycles reaction; Table S3: Scale-up experimental results over Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts. Table S4: Catalytic performance of Zr(SO4)2/SiO2 and Zr(SO4)2/AC catalysts for malic acid esterification by ethanol.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, P.Y. and G.L.; methodology, P.Y. and Z.W.; software, P.Y.; validation, G.L. and Z.W.; formal analysis, P.Y. and C.C.; investigation, C.C.; resources, X.L.; data curation, G.L. and Z.W.; writing-original draft preparation, P.Y.; writing-review and editing, P.Y. and G.L.; visualization, P.Y.; supervision, X.L.; project administration, G.L. and X.L.; funding acquisition, X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the Strategic Priority Research Program of Chinese Academy of Sciences, grant number XDA 21000000.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the financial support from the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Changzhou University.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
1. Kiyokawa, S.; Kikuchi, R.; Ohashi, Y. Cosmetics e.g., Skin Cosmetics, Hair Cosmetics, and Makeup Cosmetics, Comprise Malic Acid Ester. JP2020002056-A, 9 January 2020.
2. Liu, Z.; Zhu, H.; Miao, M. Synthesis Method of Malic Acid Di-Menthyl Ester Coolant Agent and Its Application in Tobacco. CN1301958-C, 28 February 2007.
3. Ikejiri, Y. Malic Acid Dialkyl Ester Used as Plasticizer, Surfactant or Its Intermediary Raw Material Comprises Predetermined Oligomer Content. JP5245298-B2, 24 July 2013.
4. Go, A.W.; Phuong Lan Tran, N.; Lien Huong, H.; Liu, Y.T.; Sutanto, S.; Ju, Y.H. Catalyst free esterification of fatty acids with methanol under subcritical condition. Energy 2014, 70, 393-400.
5. Oliverio, M.; Costanzo, P.; Nardi, M.; Calandruccio, C.; Salerno, R.; Procopio, A. Tunable microwave-assisted method for the solvent-free and catalyst-free peracetylation of natural products. Beilstein Org. Chem. 2016, 12, 2222-2233.
6. Popova, M.; Shestakova, P.; Lazarova, H.; Dimitrov, M.; Kovacheva, D.; Szegedi, A.; Mali, G.; Dasireddy, V.; Likozar, B.; Wilde, N.; et al. Efficient solid acid catalysts based on sulfated tin oxides for liquid phase esterification of levulinic acid with ethanol. Appl. Catal. Gen. 2018, 560, 119-131.
7. Ruan, H.; Xu, L.; Hong, S.; Liu, S. Highly effective solvent free esterification of phytosterols employing edible metal oxide-emulsifier as catalyst. Chem. Phys. Lipids 2018, 213, 118-123.
8. Ketzer, F.; Celante, D.; de Castilhos, F. Catalytic performance and ultrasonic-assisted impregnation effects on WO3/USY zeolites in esterification of oleic acid with methyl acetate. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2020, 291, 109704.
9. Kong, P.S.; Cognet, P.; Peres, Y.; Esvan, J.; Daud, W.M.A.W.; Aroua, M.K. Development of a Novel Hydrophobic ZrO2-SiO2 Based Acid Catalyst for Catalytic Esterification of Glycerol with Oleic Acid. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2018, 57, 9386-9399.
10. Furuta, S.; Matsuhashi, H.; Arata, K. Catalytic action of sulfated tin oxide for etherification and esterification in comparison with sulfated zirconia. Appl. Catal. Gen. 2004, 269, 187-191.
11. Matsuhashi, H.; Miyazaki, H.; Kawamura, Y.; Nakamura, H.; Arata, K. Preparation of a solid superacid of sulfated tin oxide with acidity higher than that of sulfated zirconia and its applications to aldol condensation and benzoylation. Chem. Mater. 2001, 13, 3038-3042.
12. Reddy, B.M.; Sreekanth, P.M.; Lakshmanan, P. Sulfated zirconia as an efficient catalyst for organic synthesis and transformation reactions. J. Mol. Catal. Chem. 2005, 237, 93-100.
13. Katada, N.; Endo, J.; Notsu, K.; Yasunobu, N.; Naito, N.; Niwa, M. Superacidity and catalytic activity of sulfated zirconia. J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 10321-10328.
14. Sun, N.; Zhang, M.; Dong, X.; Wang, L. Preparation of sulfonated ordered mesoporous carbon catalyst and its catalytic performance for esterification of free fatty acids in waste cooking oils. RSC Adv. 2019, 9, 15941-15948.
15. Pavlovic, J.; Popova, M.; Mihalyi, R.M.; Mazaj, M.; Mali, G.; Kovac, J.; Lazarova, H.; Rajic, N. Catalytic activity of SnO2-and SO4/SnO2-containing clinoptilolite in the esterification of levulinic acid. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2019, 279, 10-18.
16. Vieira, S.S.; Graca, I.; Fernandes, A.; Lopes, J.M.F.M.; Ribeiro, M.F.; Magriotis, Z.M. Influence of calcination temperature on catalytic, acid and textural properties of SO42-/La2O3/HZSM-5 type catalysts for biodiesel production by esterification. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2018, 270, 189-199.
17. Kotsarenko, N.S.; Shmachkova, V.P. Catalytic properties of the thermal decomposition products of Zr(SO4)2∙4H2O. Kinet. Catal. 2002, 43, 280-283.
18. Wang, X.; Zhao, J.; Hou, X.; Wang, F.; Tang, C. Preparation and properties of zirconia nanotube-supported zirconium sulfate catalyst. React. Kinet. Mech. Catal. 2011, 104, 227-234.
19. Lamba, R.; Sarkar, S. Synergistic effect of mixed alcohols on esterification of decanoic acid with amberlyst 15 as catalyst. Environ. Prog. Sustain. Energy 2019, 38, 13103.
20. Shahid, A.; Jamal, Y.; Khan, S.J.; Khan, J.A.; Boulanger, B. Esterification Reaction Kinetics of Acetic and Oleic Acids with Ethanol in the Presence of Amberlyst 15. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 2018, 43, 5701-5709.
21. Van Chuc, N.; Ngoc Quynh, B.; Mascunan, P.; Thi Thu Ha, V.; Fongarland, P.; Essayem, N. Esterification of aqueous lactic acid solutions with ethanol using carbon solid acid catalysts: Amberlyst 15, sulfonated pyrolyzed wood and graphene oxide. Appl. Catal. Gen. 2018, 552, 184-191.
22. Gomes, G.J.; Fernanda Zalazar, M.; Arroyo, P.A.; Scremin, F.R.; Costa, M.B.; Bittencourt, P.R.S.; Lindino, C.A.; Peruchena, N.M. Molecular-level Understanding of the Rate-determining Step in Esterification Reactions Catalyzed by H-ZSM-5 Zeolite. An Experimental and Theoretical Study. Chemistryselect 2019, 4, 3031-3041.
23. Nandiwale, K.Y.; Bokade, V.V. Esterification of Renewable Levulinic Acid to n-Butyl Levulinate over Modified H-ZSM-5. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2015, 38, 246-252.
24. Nandiwale, K.Y.; Niphadkar, P.S.; Deshpande, S.S.; Bokade, V.V. Esterification of renewable levulinic acid to ethyl levulinate biodiesel catalyzed by highly active and reusable desilicated H-ZSM-5. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2014, 89, 1507-1515.
25. Pachamuthu, M.P.; Srinivasan, V.V.; Karvembu, R.; Luque, R. Preparation of mesoporous stannosilicates SnTUD-1 and catalytic activity in levulinic acid esterification. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 2019, 287, 159-166.
26. Dou, Y.; Zhang, H.; Zhou, A.; Yang, F.; Shu, L.; She, Y.; Li, J.-R. Highly Efficient Catalytic Esterification in an -SO3H-Functionalized Cr(III)-MOF. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2018, 57, 8388-8395.
27. Tarakci, M.I.S.; Ilgen, O. Esterification of Oleic Acid with Methanol Using Zr(SO4)2 as a Heterogeneous Catalyst. Chem. Eng. Technol. 2018, 41, 845-852.
28. Juan, J.C.; Zhang, J.; Yarmo, M.A. Study of catalysts comprising zirconium sulfate supported on a mesoporous molecular sieve HMS for esterification of fatty acids under solvent-free condition. Appl. Catal. Gen. 2008, 347, 133-141.
29. Juan, J.C.; Jiang, Y.; Meng, X.; Cao, W.; Yarmo, M.A.; Zhang, J. Supported zirconium sulfate on carbon nanotubes as water-tolerant solid acid catalyst. Mater. Res. Bull. 2007, 42, 1278-1285.
30. Jimenez-Morales, I.; Santamaria-Gonzalez, J.; Maireles-Torres, P.; Jimenez-Lopez, A. Calcined zirconium sulfate supported on MCM-41 silica as acid catalyst for ethanolysis of sunflower oil. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2011, 103, 91-98.
31. Sohn, J.R.; Seo, D.H. Preparation of new solid superacid catalyst, zirconium sulfate supported on gamma-alumina and activity for acid catalysis. Catal. Today 2003, 87, 219-226.
32. Lavrenov, A.V.; Perelevskii, E.V.; Finevich, V.P.; Zaikovskii, V.I.; Paukshtis, E.A.; Duplyakin, V.K.; Bal'zhinimaev, B.S. Alkylation of isobutane with butenes on zirconium sulfate catalysts. Russ. J. Appl. Chem. 2003, 76, 550-557.
33. Tan, J.; Lu, T.; Zhang, J.; Xie, B.; Chen, M.; Zhu, X. Highly efficient and recyclable catalysts SnCl2-xH3PW10O40/AC with Bronsted and Lewis acid sites for terephthalic acid esterification. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2018, 86, 18-24.
34. Foo, G.S.; Wei, D.; Sholl, D.S.; Sievers, C. Role of Lewis and Bronsted Acid Sites in the Dehydration of Glycerol over Niobia. ACS Catal. 2014, 4, 3180-3192.
35. Wang, Z.; Wang, L.; Jiang, Y.; Hunger, M.; Huang, J. Cooperativity of Bronsted and Lewis Acid Sites on Zeolite for Glycerol Dehydration. ACS Catal. 2014, 4, 1144-1147.
36. Emeis, C.A. Determination of integrated molar extinction coefficients for infrared-absorption bands of pyridine adsorbed on solid acid catalysts. J. Catal. 1993, 141, 347-354.
37. Arata, K.; Hino, M.; Yamagata, N. Acidity and catalytic activity of zirconium and titanium sulfates heat-treated at high-temperature solid surperacid catalysts. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1990, 63, 244-246.
38. Figueiredo, J.L.; Pereira, M.F.R. The role of surface chemistry in catalysis with carbons. Catal. Today 2010, 150, 2-7.
39. Bensalem, A.; Bozonverduraz, F.; Delamar, M.; Bugli, G. Preparation and characterization of highly dispersed silica-supported ceria. Appl. Catal. Gen. 1995, 121, 81-93.
40. Reddy, B.A.; Khan, A.; Yamada, Y.; Kobayashi, T.; Loridant, S.; Volta, J.C. Surface characterization of CeO2/SiO2 and V2O5/CeO2/SiO2 catalysts by Raman, XPS, and other techniques. J. Phys. Chem. B 2002, 106, 10964-10972.
41. Sivasamy, A.; Cheah, K.Y.; Fornasiero, P.; Kemausuor, F.; Zinoviev, S.; Miertus, S. Catalytic Applications in the Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils. Chemsuschem 2009, 2, 278-300.
Pei Yu†, Can Chen†, Guangci Li*, Zhong Wang* and Xuebing Li
Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
*Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
†Pei Yu and Can Chen have contributed equally to this work.
© 2020. This work is licensed under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Details
; Li, Xuebing