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Abstract
Microtubules are long, slender polymers of the protein tubulin that cells use to construct the cytoskeleton, the mitotic spindle, axonemes, and neuronal processes. These polymers are not static. Rather, they are constantly broken down and rebuilt as cells grow, divide, and differentiate. This process is called the dynamic instability of microtubules, which is a conserved and fundamental mechanism in eukaryotes. However, microtubules from different species diverge in their growth rates and lattice structures. Therefore, we do not know what limits microtubule growth, what determines microtubule structure, or whether the mechanisms of dynamic instability are universal. To approach this challenge, I turned to the nematode C. elegans, which stands out in the microcosm of microtubule morphology. First, its microtubules lack the textbook 13 protofilament architecture found in most species studied to date, including mammals. Instead, its cells harbour smaller microtubules with only 11 protofilaments. Second, its microtubules grow nearly two orders of magnitude faster than those of other eukaryotes. I reasoned that studying the microtubules of C. elegans would yield critical insights into microtubule structure and dynamics.
Using a reconstitution approach, I found that C. elegans microtubules were intrinsically fast-growing. To understand how sequence divergence translates to fast growth, I turned to cryo-electron microscopy. In combination with single-particle reconstruction techniques, I was able to solve the 3D structure of C. elegans microtubules to 4.8 Å. This revealed that the divergent residues localize to inter-tubulin lateral contacts. Furthermore, a typically unstructured loop therein was resolved in C. elegans compared to published mammalian microtubule structures. Indeed, a molecular dynamics simulation of tubulin performed by the Sept lab showed that those residues were more likely to form stable secondary structures. By applying the Arrhenius equation to microtubule growth, I confirmed that C. elegans tubulin had a higher free energy in solution. Finally, an analysis of tubulin geometry revealed that the C. elegans 11 protofilament microtubules were supertwisted in vitro. I confirmed this observation in electron tomograms of fixed embryos (prepared by the Müller-Reichert lab) by developing a novel 3D analysis technique. Ultimately, this study revealed that (1) the ordering of lateral contact loops limits microtubule growth, and (2) a complex metazoan can thrive with supertwisted microtubules.





