Abstract

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects 5% of children world-wide. Of these, two-thirds continue to have impairing symptoms of ADHD into adulthood. Although a large literature implicates structural brain differences of the disorder, it is not clear if adults with ADHD have similar neuroanatomical differences as those seen in children with recent reports from the large ENIGMA-ADHD consortium finding structural differences for children but not for adults. This paper uses deep learning neural network classification models to determine if there are neuroanatomical changes in the brains of children with ADHD that are also observed for adult ADHD, and vice versa. We found that structural MRI data can significantly separate ADHD from control participants for both children and adults. Consistent with the prior reports from ENIGMA-ADHD, prediction performance and effect sizes were better for the child than the adult samples. The model trained on adult samples significantly predicted ADHD in the child sample, suggesting that our model learned anatomical features that are common to ADHD in childhood and adulthood. These results support the continuity of ADHD’s brain differences from childhood to adulthood. In addition, our work demonstrates a novel use of neural network classification models to test hypotheses about developmental continuity.

Details

Title
Evidence for similar structural brain anomalies in youth and adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a machine learning analysis
Author
Zhang-James, Yanli 1   VIAFID ORCID Logo  ; Helminen, Emily C 2 ; Liu, Jinru 3 ; Busatto, Geraldo F 4 ; Calvo, Anna 5 ; Cercignani Mara 6 ; Chaim-Avancini, Tiffany M 7 ; Gabel, Matt C 6 ; Harrison, Neil A 8 ; Lazaro, Luisa 9 ; Lera-Miguel, Sara 10 ; Louza, Mario R 11 ; Nicolau, Rosa 10 ; Rosa Pedro G P 7 ; Schulte-Rutte, Martin 12 ; Zanetti, Marcus V 13 ; Ambrosino, Sara 14 ; Asherson, Philip 15 ; Banaschewski Tobias 16 ; Baranov Alexandr 17 ; Baumeister, Sarah 16 ; Baur-Streubel Ramona 18 ; Bellgrove, Mark A 19 ; Biederman, Joseph 20 ; Bralten Janita 21 ; Bramati, Ivanei E 22 ; Brandeis, Daniel 23 ; Brem, Silvia 24 ; Buitelaar, Jan K 25 ; Castellanos, Francisco X 26 ; Chantiluke, Kaylita C 27 ; Christakou Anastasia 28 ; Coghill, David 29 ; Conzelmann, Annette 30 ; Cubillo, Ana I 27 ; Dale, Anders M 31 ; de Zeeuw Patrick 32 ; Doyle, Alysa E 33 ; Durston, Sarah 32 ; Earl, Eric A 34 ; Epstein, Jeffrey N 35 ; Ethofer, Thomas 36 ; Fair, Damien A 37 ; Fallgatter, Andreas J 38 ; Frodl, Thomas 39 ; Gogberashvili Tinatin 40 ; Haavik, Jan 41 ; Hartman, Catharina A 42 ; Heslenfeld, Dirk J 43 ; Hoekstra, Pieter J 42 ; Hohmann, Sarah 6 ; Høvik, Marie F 44 ; Jahanshad Neda 45 ; Jernigan, Terry L 46 ; Kardatzki Bernd 47 ; Karkashadze Georgii 48 ; Kelly, Clare 49 ; Kohls Gregor 50 ; Konrad, Kerstin 51 ; Kuntsi Jonna 5 ; Lesch Klaus-Peter 52 ; Lundervold, Astri J 53 ; Malpas, Charles B 54 ; Mattos, Paulo 55 ; McCarthy, Hazel 56 ; Mehta, Mitul A 57 ; Namazova-Baranova Leyla 58 ; Nigg, Joel T 37 ; Novotny, Stephanie E 59 ; O’Gorman Tuura Ruth L 60 ; Weiss, Eileen Oberwelland 61 ; Oosterlaan Jaap 62 ; Oranje Bob 14 ; Paloyelis Yannis 57 ; Pauli, Paul 63 ; Plessen, Kerstin J 64 ; Antoni, Ramos-Quiroga J 65 ; Reif, Andreas 66 ; Reneman Liesbeth 67 ; Rubia Katya 27 ; Schrantee Anouk 68 ; Schwarz, Lena 69 ; Schweren, Lizanne J, S 42 ; Seitz Jochen 70 ; Shaw, Philip 71 ; Silk, Tim J 72 ; Skokauskas Norbert 73 ; Vila Juan Carlos Soliva 74 ; Stevens, Michael C 75 ; Sudre Gustavo 76 ; Tamm, Leanne 77 ; Thompson, Paul M 78 ; Tovar-Moll, Fernanda 79 ; van Erp Theo G M 80 ; Vance, Alasdair 81 ; Vilarroya Oscar 82 ; Vives-Gilabert, Yolanda 83 ; von Polier Georg G 70 ; Walitza Susanne 84 ; Yoncheva, Yuliya N 85 ; Ziegler, Georg C 86 ; Franke, Barbara 87   VIAFID ORCID Logo  ; Hoogman Martine 21 ; Faraone, Stephen V 88   VIAFID ORCID Logo 

1  SUNY Upstate Medical University, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Syracuse, USA (GRID:grid.411023.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 9159 4457) 
2  Syracuse University, Department of Psychology, Syracuse, USA (GRID:grid.264484.8) (ISNI:0000 0001 2189 1568) 
3  University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA (GRID:grid.35403.31) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9991) 
4  Universidade de Sao Paulo, Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM21), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, SP, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722); University of Sao Paulo, Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Sao Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722) 
5  Magnetic Resonance Image Core Facility, Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.10403.36) 
6  Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Department of Neuroscience, Falmer, UK (GRID:grid.414601.6) (ISNI:0000 0000 8853 076X) 
7  University of São Paulo, Sao Paulo, Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Sao Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722); University of São Paulo, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), Sao Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722) 
8  Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Department of Neuroscience, Falmer, UK (GRID:grid.414601.6) (ISNI:0000 0000 8853 076X); Sussex Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, Swandean, UK (GRID:grid.451317.5) (ISNI:0000 0004 0489 3918) 
9  Institut d’Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.10403.36); Biomedical Network Research Center on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.10403.36); University of Barcelona, Department of Medicine, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.5841.8) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0247) 
10  Institute of Neurosciencies, Hospital Clínic, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.410458.c) (ISNI:0000 0000 9635 9413) 
11  University of São Paulo, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722) 
12  Child Neuropsychology Section, University Hospital Aachen, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.412301.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 8653 1507); JARA Translational Brain Medicine, Research Center Juelich, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.8385.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 2297 375X) 
13  University of São Paulo, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), Sao Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722); University of São Paulo, Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, São Paulo, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722) 
14  NICHE Lab, Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.7692.a) (ISNI:0000000090126352) 
15  Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK (GRID:grid.13097.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2322 6764) 
16  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany (GRID:grid.413757.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 0477 2235) 
17  National Medical Research Center for Children’s Health, Moscow, Russia (GRID:grid.413757.3) 
18  University of Würzburg, Department of Biological Psychology, Clinical Psychology, and Psychotherapy, Würzburg, Germany (GRID:grid.8379.5) (ISNI:0000 0001 1958 8658) 
19  Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1002.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7857) 
20  Clinical and Research Programs in Pediatric Psychopharmacology and Adult ADHD, Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, USA (GRID:grid.32224.35) (ISNI:0000 0004 0386 9924); Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA (GRID:grid.32224.35) 
21  Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Human Genetics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.10417.33) (ISNI:0000 0004 0444 9382); Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.5590.9) (ISNI:0000000122931605) 
22  D’Or Institute for Research and Education, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (GRID:grid.472984.4) 
23  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany (GRID:grid.413757.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 0477 2235); Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.7400.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0650); Neuroscience Center, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.5801.c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2156 2780) 
24  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.7400.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0650); Neuroscience Center, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.5801.c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2156 2780) 
25  Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.5590.9) (ISNI:0000000122931605); Karakter Child and Adolescent Psychiatry University Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.5590.9) 
26  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, USA (GRID:grid.240324.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2109 4251); Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, USA (GRID:grid.250263.0) (ISNI:0000 0001 2189 4777); Section of Biomedical Image Analysis, Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA (GRID:grid.25879.31) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 8972) 
27  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK (GRID:grid.13097.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2322 6764) 
28  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK (GRID:grid.13097.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2322 6764); School of Psychology and Clinical Language Sciences, Centre for Integrative Neuroscience and Neurodynamics, University of Reading, Reading, UK (GRID:grid.9435.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 0457 9566) 
29  The University of Melbourne, Departments of Paediatrics and Psychiatry, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 088X); Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9); Division of Neuroscience, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK (GRID:grid.8241.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 0397 2876) 
30  University Hospital of Tübingen, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.411544.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0196 8249); PFH – Private University of Applied Sciences, Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology II), Göttingen, Germany (GRID:grid.462770.0) (ISNI:0000 0004 1771 2629) 
31  Departments of Neurosciences, Radiology, and Psychiatry, UC San Diego, San Diego, USA (GRID:grid.266100.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2107 4242); Center for Multimodal Imaging and Genetics (CMIG), UC San Diego, San Diego, USA (GRID:grid.266100.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2107 4242) 
32  Universidade de Sao Paulo, Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM21), Hospital das Clinicas HCFMUSP, Faculdade de Medicina, SP, Brazil (GRID:grid.11899.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0722) 
33  Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA (GRID:grid.11899.38); Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA (GRID:grid.11899.38) 
34  Oregon Health & Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Portland, USA (GRID:grid.5288.7) (ISNI:0000 0000 9758 5690) 
35  Division of Behavioral Medicine and Clinical Psychology, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, USA (GRID:grid.239573.9) (ISNI:0000 0000 9025 8099); University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati, USA (GRID:grid.24827.3b) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 9593) 
36  University Hospital of Tübingen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.411544.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0196 8249); University of Tübingen, Department of Biomedical Magnetic Resonance, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.10392.39) (ISNI:0000 0001 2190 1447) 
37  Oregon Health & Science University, Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Portland, USA (GRID:grid.5288.7) (ISNI:0000 0000 9758 5690); Oregon Health & Science University, Department of Psychiatry, Portland, USA (GRID:grid.5288.7) (ISNI:0000 0000 9758 5690) 
38  University Hospital of Tübingen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.411544.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0196 8249); University of Tübingen, LEAD Graduate School, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.10392.39) (ISNI:0000 0001 2190 1447) 
39  Otto von Guericke University, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Magdeburg, Germany (GRID:grid.5807.a) (ISNI:0000 0001 1018 4307); Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Department of Psychiatry, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.8217.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9705); German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Magdeburg, Germany (GRID:grid.424247.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 0438 0426) 
40  Laboratory of Neurology and Cognitive Health, National Medical Research Center for Children’s Health, Moscow, Russia (GRID:grid.424247.3) 
41  K.G. Jebsen Centre for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.7914.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7443); Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.412008.f) (ISNI:0000 0000 9753 1393) 
42  University of Groningen, Department of Psychiatry, Interdisciplinary Center Psychopathology and Emotion Regulation (ICPE), University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.4830.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 0407 1981) 
43  Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.12380.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1754 9227) 
44  Division of Psychiatry, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.412008.f) (ISNI:0000 0000 9753 1393); University of Bergen, Department of Clinical Medicine, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.7914.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7443) 
45  Imaging Genetics Center, Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging & Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, USA (GRID:grid.42505.36) (ISNI:0000 0001 2156 6853) 
46  Center for Human Development, UC San Diego, San Diego, USA (GRID:grid.266100.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2107 4242) 
47  University of Tübingen, Department of Biomedical Magnetic Resonance, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.10392.39) (ISNI:0000 0001 2190 1447) 
48  Laboratory of Neurology and Cognitive Health, National Medical Research Center for Children’s Health, Moscow, Russia (GRID:grid.10392.39) 
49  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, USA (GRID:grid.240324.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2109 4251); Trinity College Dublin, the University of Dublin, School of Psychology and Department of Psychiatry at the School of Medicine, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.8217.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9705); Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.8217.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9705) 
50  University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Child Neuropsychology Section, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.412301.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 8653 1507) 
51  University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Child Neuropsychology Section, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.412301.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 8653 1507); JARA Institute Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging (INM-11), Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine, Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany (GRID:grid.8385.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 2297 375X) 
52  Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (GRID:grid.8379.5) (ISNI:0000 0001 1958 8658); Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia (GRID:grid.448878.f) (ISNI:0000 0001 2288 8774); Maastricht University, Department of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience (MHeNS), Maastricht, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.5012.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 0481 6099) 
53  K.G. Jebsen Centre for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.7914.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7443); University of Bergen, Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, Bergen, Norway (GRID:grid.7914.b) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 7443) 
54  Developmental Imaging Group, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.7914.b); Clinical Outcomes Research Unit (CORe), Department of Medicine, Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.7914.b); The University of Melbourne, Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 088X) 
55  D’Or Institute for Research and Education, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (GRID:grid.472984.4); Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (GRID:grid.8536.8) (ISNI:0000 0001 2294 473X) 
56  Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Department of Psychiatry, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.8217.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9705); Centre of Advanced Medical Imaging, St James’s Hospital, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.416409.e) (ISNI:0000 0004 0617 8280) 
57  Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, UK (GRID:grid.13097.3c) (ISNI:0000 0001 2322 6764) 
58  National Medical Research Center for Children’s Health, Moscow, Russia (GRID:grid.13097.3c) 
59  Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, USA (GRID:grid.277313.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 0626 2712) 
60  University Children’s Hospital, Center for MR Research, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.412341.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0726 4330); Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), Zürich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.7400.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0650) 
61  JARA Institute Molecular Neuroscience and Neuroimaging (INM-11), Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine, Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany (GRID:grid.8385.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 2297 375X); University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.412301.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 8653 1507); Cognitive Neuroscience (INM-3), Institute for Neuroscience and Medicine, Research Center Jülich, Jülich, Germany (GRID:grid.8385.6) (ISNI:0000 0001 2297 375X) 
62  Clinical Neuropsychology Section, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.12380.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1754 9227); Emma Children’s Hospital Amsterdam Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.414503.7) (ISNI:0000 0004 0529 2508); Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Pediatrics, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.12380.38) (ISNI:0000 0004 1754 9227) 
63  PFH – Private University of Applied Sciences, Department of Psychology (Clinical Psychology II), Göttingen, Germany (GRID:grid.462770.0) (ISNI:0000 0004 1771 2629) 
64  Child and Adolescent Mental Health Centre, Copenhagen, Denmark (GRID:grid.462770.0); University Hospital Lausanne, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne, Switzerland (GRID:grid.8515.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 0423 4662) 
65  Department of Psychiatry, Hospital Universitari Vall d’Hebron, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.411083.f) (ISNI:0000 0001 0675 8654); Group of Psychiatry, Addictions and Mental Health, Vall d’Hebron Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.430994.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1763 0287); Biomedical Network Research Centre on Mental Health (CIBERSAM), Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.430994.3); Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.7080.f) 
66  University Hospital Frankfurt, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Frankfurt, Germany (GRID:grid.411088.4) (ISNI:0000 0004 0578 8220) 
67  Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.7177.6) (ISNI:0000000084992262); Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Brain Imaging Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.7177.6) (ISNI:0000000084992262) 
68  Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.7177.6) (ISNI:0000000084992262) 
69  University Hospital of Tübingen, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Tübingen, Germany (GRID:grid.411544.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 0196 8249) 
70  University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Aachen, Germany (GRID:grid.412301.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 8653 1507) 
71  National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, USA (GRID:grid.280128.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 2233 9230); National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, USA (GRID:grid.416868.5) (ISNI:0000 0004 0464 0574) 
72  Deakin University, School of Psychology, Geelong, Australia (GRID:grid.1021.2) (ISNI:0000 0001 0526 7079); The University of Melbourne, Developmental Imaging Group, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 088X); The University of Melbourne, Department of Paediatrics, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 088X) 
73  Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Department of Psychiatry, Dublin, Ireland (GRID:grid.8217.c) (ISNI:0000 0004 1936 9705); Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Institute of Mental Health, Trondheim, Norway (GRID:grid.5947.f) (ISNI:0000 0001 1516 2393) 
74  Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.7080.f) 
75  Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, USA (GRID:grid.277313.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 0626 2712); Yale University, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, New Haven, USA (GRID:grid.47100.32) (ISNI:0000000419368710) 
76  National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, USA (GRID:grid.280128.1) (ISNI:0000 0001 2233 9230) 
77  Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, USA (GRID:grid.239573.9) (ISNI:0000 0000 9025 8099); University of Cincinnati, College of Medicine, Cincinnati, USA (GRID:grid.24827.3b) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 9593) 
78  University of Southern California, Imaging Genetics Center, Stevens Institute for Neuroimaging & Informatics, Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, USA (GRID:grid.42505.36) (ISNI:0000 0001 2156 6853) 
79  D’Or Institute for Research and Education, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (GRID:grid.472984.4); Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Morphological Sciences Program, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (GRID:grid.8536.8) (ISNI:0000 0001 2294 473X) 
80  Clinical and Translational Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California Irvine, Irvine, USA (GRID:grid.266093.8) (ISNI:0000 0001 0668 7243) 
81  The University of Melbourne, Department of Paediatrics, Melbourne, Australia (GRID:grid.1008.9) (ISNI:0000 0001 2179 088X) 
82  Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.7080.f); Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain (GRID:grid.20522.37) (ISNI:0000 0004 1767 9005) 
83  Instituto ITACA, Universitat Politècnica de València, València, Spain (GRID:grid.157927.f) (ISNI:0000 0004 1770 5832) 
84  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland (GRID:grid.7400.3) (ISNI:0000 0004 1937 0650) 
85  Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, USA (GRID:grid.240324.3) (ISNI:0000 0001 2109 4251) 
86  Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Center of Mental Health, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany (GRID:grid.8379.5) (ISNI:0000 0001 1958 8658) 
87  Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Human Genetics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.10417.33) (ISNI:0000 0004 0444 9382); Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.5590.9) (ISNI:0000000122931605); Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, The Netherlands (GRID:grid.10417.33) (ISNI:0000 0004 0444 9382) 
88  SUNY Upstate Medical University, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Syracuse, USA (GRID:grid.411023.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 9159 4457); Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, USA (GRID:grid.411023.5) (ISNI:0000 0000 9159 4457) 
Publication year
2021
Publication date
2021
Publisher
Nature Publishing Group
e-ISSN
21583188
Source type
Scholarly Journal
Language of publication
English
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01201-4
ProQuest document ID
2484413328
Copyright
© The Author(s) 2021. This work is published under http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.