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I. Introduction
A recent recording of Beethoven's symphonies that utilizes his metronome marks invites further discussion of this topic but from a new perspective.1 Marks for his firsr eight symphonies, "determined by the composer himself according to Maelzels metronome," appeared in Leipzig's Allgemeine musikalische Zdtung on December 17, 1817.2 In all probability, this was at the instigation of Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, based in Vienna, who had appropriated the metronomes invention from Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel in Amsterdam, patented it, and undertaken major publicity efforts. Although a court of arbitration later decided in WinkePs favor, in 1817 Mälzel was believed to be the inventor, and he traveled to European cities to promote the device. In Paris he published a Notice sur le metronome (1816) in which some forty composers (including Beethoven) from Germany, Austria, France, and England endorse the metronome.3 These endorsements were vital to Mälzels marketing success. For composers' convenience in selecting a tempo, he then published in 1818 a scale of metronome numbers that he thought suitable for replacing die principal Italian terms of tempo (see Figure 2 below).4 While rhe scale is feasible for certain pieces, for others it is highly misleading. Might it be implicated in the many implausible metronome marks in composers' scores?5 The questions raised by some of Beethoven's figures have been the subject of discussion for over a century, and this material need not be covered again. Instead, after considering the historical context, this article will focus on Mälzels role in diese and other tempo marks.
II. Historical Context
Beethoven's hearing loss is a major factor when considering his tempo marks. By 1799 its magnitude was sufficient to make him avoid society. In 1814, three years before preparing his first tempo figures, Louis Spohr heard him conduct his Seventh Symphony. Being unable to hear the piano sections, Beethoven was ahead of the orchestra by as much as ten or twelve measures. By 1816 all tones were lost to him. Any use that Beethoven made of the metronome would have had to be either with another person or gauged according to the pendulum's visual movement. Even for us, who have grown up with the metronome ticking in our ears and are accustomed to music with little deviation from a steady...