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1. Introduction
Concept mapping (CM) is a cognitive learning strategy and a visual road map that represents the pathways connecting the meanings of concepts (Novak & Gowin, 1984; Novak, Gowin & Johansen, 1983). Two notions form the theoretical framework of CM: “schema theory” (Rumelhart & Norman, 1978; Winn & Snyder, 1996) and Ausubel’s (1968) “theory of human cognitive learning,” often referred to in the literature as meaningful learning theory. According to the schema theory, when learners are confronted with new information, they react in one of three ways: accretion, tuning, or restructuring. In accretion, the learner assimilates new knowledge into an existing schema without changing the overall schema. In tuning, the learner realizes that the existing schema is inadequate for the new knowledge and modifies that. In restructuring, the learner creates a new schema that resolves inconsistencies between the new knowledge and the old schema.
Ausubel’s (1968) theory of human cognitive learning focuses on the processes of using meaningful learning for acquiring knowledge. At the core of the theory is the distinction between rote and meaningful learning. Ausubel theorized that new meaning develops as a result of previously acquired concepts and propositions reorganizing and merging with new information. While the process of creating a concept map is in the works, a rearrangement of new concepts occurs as a result of obtaining new knowledge and a deeper understanding of the topic. As a continuation of Ausubel’s legacy, Novak’s (2002) “theory of meaningful learning” connects cognitive gains with emotional sensitivity. According to Novak, meaningful learning is dynamic and is modified over time as new information is acquired.
One means of developing students’ academic competence and performance includes writing through meaningful practice. As an essential language skill, writing compels second/foreign language (L2) learners to think, concentrate, and organize their ideas. It also cultivates their analytical abilities and demands highly meaningful cognitive practice. Meanwhile, students learning to write in an L2 come across multiple challenges, namely deciding on the content knowledge related to a writing topic, making proper lexical and grammatical choices to form correct sentences, and organizing sentences into a paragraph or an entire essay. Hence, it is vital to identify efficient learning strategies and constructive planning tools, as composing a well-developed multiple-paragraph essay can be a...