Content area
Full text
Introduction:
Environmental degradation in the form of urbanization, deforestation, water wastage, and poor sanitation continued during the medieval era which made it more vulnerable to famines and epidemics. India was an agricultural country, any political or climatic factor that affected crop production became the primary reason for these natural catastrophes. The climatic change was a dominant factor in the recurrence of famines and epidemics during the medieval era. A climate variation was witnessed worldwide and had impacted India.
Early Medieval India:
The frequency of famines and epidemics increased during the medieval era in India. Acute famines emerged in India in the tenth century.1 The first one took place in 917-918 AD2 in the region of Kashmir, and the second drastic famine occurred under the Delhi Sultan, Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1290-1351).3 As described by the thirteenth century Indo-Persian historian, Ziauddin Barani (1285-1357), the primary reasons behind the emergence of famine was the imposition of immense land taxes and the exploitation of the peasants at the hands of the aristocrats.4 Unpredictable climate fluctuations, such as floods, monsoon failure, and wars, resulted in acute famines during the Chola period (850-1279 AD).5
Climatic Variations:
Climate had a significant role in medieval India. Less rainfall in the Himalayas resulted in famines, wars, rebellions which led to a population decrease.6 As the snow melted slowly, it affected irrigation by decreasing the water in the river Indus.7 From 1200-1300 AD and in 1350 AD, climate changed, giving way to famines.8 In the late twelfth century, dry climate spelled central Asia.9 During this time, the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire, Muhammad of Ghor (r.1173-1206) conquered India, and established his government in 1186 A.D.10 The change in Muslim dynasties in Iran, Afghanistan, Morocco, and beyond depicts the impact of climatic change.11 With the spell of drought over Sindh from 1200 AD Ghori's lost Afghanistan and Central Asia's control.12 It shows that droughts,famines, and epidemics had a profound role in the downfall of dynasties in India.
The Delhi Sultan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq (r.1351-1388) had to face the dreadful consequences of drought as the aridity increased throughout his reign, resulting in rebellions throughout his reign.13 From 1340-1400 AD, there was less rainfall that resulted in rebellions and consequently led to the empire's downfall.14 Many small kingdoms...