Abstract
This study aimed to examine the relationship (direction and magnitude) between critical thinking and problem solving by combining the results of the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 via meta-analysis. In this study, which is a metaanalysis study, PRISMA guidelines were followed. The studies obtained after searching the relevant literature through some electronic databases using search patterns were reviewed by two researchers in terms of inclusion criteria and 43 studies were included. Since more than one data were shared in some of these studies, meta-analysis was carried out with 49 data. The mean effect size of the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving was 0.483 under random effects model which indicated that there was a medium relationship between critical thinking and problem solving. This effect size did not differ according to subgroups of region, critical thinking type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type. The results obtained in this study are confirmed by theoretical background regarding critical thinking and problem solving and previous studies.
Keywords: Critical thinking, problem solving, meta-analysis, correlation, higher-order thinking skills.
ÖZ
Bu meta-analiz çalışmasının amacı 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 tarihleri arasında yapılmış çalışmaların sonuçlarını birleştirerek, eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasındaki ilişkiyi (yön ve büyüklük) araştırmaktır. Arama terimlerini kullanarak bazı elektronik veri tabanları aracılığıyla ilgili literatürün araştırılmasının ardından elde edilen çalışmalar dahil edilme ölçütleri açısından iki farklı araştırmacı tarafından incelenmiş ve analize 43 çalışma dahil edilmiştir. Bu çalışmaların bazılarında birden fazla veri paylaşıldığı için, meta-analiz 49 veri ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözme arasındaki ilişkinin etki büyüklüğü 0.483 olarak bulunmuştur ve bu değer eleştirel düşünme ile problem çözme arasında orta düzeyde bir ilişkinin olduğunu göstermektedir. Elde edilen bu etki büyüklüğü çalışmanın yapıldığı bölge, eleştirel düşünme türü, sınıf düzeyi, alan ve yayın türü alt gruplarına göre farklılaşmamaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında elde edilen sonuçlar, eleştirel düşünme ve problem çözmeye ilişkin teorik alt yapıyla ve geçmiş çalışmaların sonuçlarıyla örtüşmektedir.
Anahtar kelimeler: Eleştirel düşünme, problem çözme, meta-analiz, korelasyon, üst düzey düşünme becerileri.
1 I Introduction
Today, the main purpose of education is no longer to have individuals with basic knowledge, but to have individuals who can think effectively and are independent learners (Kaeppel, 2021). Higher order thinking skills, one of the 21st century skills (Partnership for 21st Century Learning, 2009), correspond to analyze, evaluate and create levels of the revised Bloom taxonomy and allow the individual to interpret information, adapt it to new cases, analyze it and create something original by going beyond the routine (Anderson et al., 2001). In fact, every human being has the ability to think at a basic level by nature and this is the most basic feature of the individual. However, people with basic thinking skills will fail to interpret their environment and solve problems, and if the individual does not have higher order thinking skills, this thinking process will be biased, incomplete and erroneous (Nosich, 2011). Therefore, higher order thinking skills enable the individual to think effectively, to have the skills of this century and to keep up with the developments and innovations occurred in this age. Besides, the individual with higher order thinking skills can think more effectively, and in this thinking process, the individual has an active role, takes responsibilities and becomes a person who researches, solves problems, can make logical decisions and produce original products. For this reason, one of the primary purposes of education is to improve individuals' thinking skills in the 21st century (Al-Zou'bi, 2021; Van Gelder, 2005).
Paul (1990) defines critical thinking (CT) as a mode of thinking about any subject or content in which the individual evaluates whether the information is valid, logical and correct or whether the result obtained is reasonable. Beyer (1995) defines CT as a process of making a judgment about the quality of knowledge. Therefore, it is possible to consider CT as a careful and rational judgment or decision-making process (Facione, 1990). This process includes the evaluation of information, claims or judgments according to certain standards (Facione, 1998). According to Halpern (2003), CT is the employing necessary cognitive skills and strategies which increase the possibility of reaching desired results. In other words, CT can be seen as cognitive skills and strategies that individuals use in solving problems (Sternberg, 1999a). Some of these cognitive skills and strategies are questioning, problem solving (PS) (Watson & Glaser, 1964), analysis, evaluation, inference, reaching a conclusion (Facione, 2000), decision making (Halpern, 2003), synthesis, defining and solving the problem, reaching a conclusion and evaluating the results (Angelo, 1995). The process in which these strategies and cognitive skills are used is a purposeful, criteria-based and self-regulative process (Facione, 2000; Lipman, 1988). In this process, which is a logical thinking process (Nosich 2011), individuals take responsibility, query, understand the logic of the questions, reach conclusions and believe in the results after evaluating them (Lipman, 1988; Nosich, 2011).
CT is directly related to many thinking skills. CT, which is a multifaceted thinking process, includes different thinking skills depending on the situation (Bittner & Tobin, 1998). However, although CT includes different thinking skills, it is not totally same with these thinking skills. CT, which can be considered as an umbrella for other thinking skills (Bittner & Tobin, 1998), is not just a decision-making skill, although it includes decisionmaking. In addition, although it includes the stages of PS, it is not just about PS skills. Therefore, even if it includes different thinking skills in different problem situations, it is wrong to limit CT to a single thinking skill. On the other hand, other thinking skills also include CT in their own processes. For example, creative thinking skill can be employed in the CT process, and CT skills are used in the evaluation of the product or idea that emerges in the creative thinking process (Sternberg, 1999b).
CRITICAL THINKING and PROBLEM SOLVING
When problem is defined as the difference between the existing and the desired state or the difficulties need to be overcame by individuals in the journey of reaching this desired situation (Bransford & Stein, 1993), PS can be seen as the work of bringing out the most useful solutions to eliminate these difficulties/problems faced by individuals (Morgan et al., 2017). PS, which is a complex cognitive skill, involves skills such as reasoning and establishing cause and effect relationships (Acikgoz, 2016). PS can also be defined as the cognitive activities used by individuals to reach a certain aim (Anderson, 1993) such as realizing the problem, examining the problem in all its aspects, collecting information and data regarding the solution, generating alternative solutions, evaluating alternatives and choosing the best solution (Kaya, 2008).
While the aim of PS is moving from an undesired situation to a better one, the main purpose of CT is not only to find a solution to a problem, but to collect evidence to defend thoughts, claims and judgments, to evaluate the source of the collected evidence and to present it logically (Hickman, 1993). Therefore, while PS aims to solve the problem encountered, CT is not only about this and goes beyond PS (Meyers, 1998). While the result is important in PS, CT focuses on the process rather than the result. CT is needed during the whole PS process. According to Paul and Elder (2001), CT skills are employed in defining the problem, revealing the reasons and assumptions behind it, comparing different ideas on its solution, collecting information, data and evidence to reach a solution, and evaluating the source of this information, data and evidence. According to Fisher (2005), both CT and creative thinking skills are employed in the PS process. CT skills are needed in defining the elements of the problem, analyzing the problem rationally, comparing the alternatives to solve the problem and selecting the most appropriate and useful one. In short, while PS deals with a solution for a problem, CT focuses on all stages of the process and also includes evaluating the solutions which appear at the end of PS process.
Regarding the existent literature, there are many studies which suggest that CT is significantly related to PS (Irwanto et al., 2018; Kim & Choi, 2014; Kousar & Afzal, 2021; Kutluca, 2018; Memduhoglu & Kele§, 2016; Shim et al., 2019; Tiimkaya et al., 2009). On the contrary, there are also other studies which concluded that CT is not significantly related to PS (Demiral, 2019; Friedel et al., 2008; Guliinay, 2016; Junsay, 2016). Therefore, it is possible to say that studies on these issues have revealed some ambiguous results. In addition, the studies have yielded different results regarding the magnitude of the significant relationships found between CT and PS. So, meta-analysis studies on the relationship between CT and PS can offer a holistic portrait of the association between these thinking skills because meta-analysis studies allow the knowledge accumulated in a specific area to be interpreted in a consistent way by combining the results of previous research conducted by diverse people (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). This study aimed to investigate the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS by combining the results of the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 via meta-analysis. To this end, answer to the following question was sought for:
1. What is the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS skills and does this relationship vary by different variables?
2|Method
In this study, which is a meta-analysis study, PRISMA guidelines proposed by Moher et al. (2009) were followed.
COLLECTION of STUDIES and INCLUSION and EXCLUSION CRITERIA
Studies found after literature review should be involved in the analysis in consideration of certain criteria (Springer et al., 1999). However, the criteria need to be set very carefully as qualities of the collected studies can decrease provided that the criteria are too broad while very few studies may be collected which may prevent the generalizability of the results if the criteria are too strict. Accordingly, inclusion criteria were determined firstly. Then, the studies were reviewed in terms of inclusion criteria by two different researchers.
According to Rosenthal (1979), one of the main problems in meta-analysis studies is publication bias (PB). Including only studies published in academic journals in meta-analysis is an important problem that may cause PB, since studies that have reached a significant difference or relationship results have more chance to be published in the academic journals than the others which concluded non-significant results (Rothstein et al., 2005). Therefore, including as many and different types of studies as possible in meta-analysis can prevent this problem that may cause PB and prevent obtaining more reliable and valid results. For this reason, it was aimed to include all studies that have focused on the relation between CT and PS and reported necessary statistical data in the analysis. So, studies published in the research journals, conference papers, book chapters and unpublished postgraduate theses are involved in the analysis.
The criteria which were used in order to examine the studies before including the meta-analysis can be seen below:
1. The study must be carried out between 01.01.2015 and 30.11.2020.
2. The study must be a correlational one which examines the relationship between CT and PS.
3. The measurement tools that have sufficient psychometric properties must be used in the studies.
4. The study must provide enough statistical data to estimate the ES.
In order to reach studies investigating the relationship between CT and PS, some online databases, namely, Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ULAKBIM and Turkish National Thesis Center were searched with "critical thinking" OR "critical thinking skills" OR "critical thinking disposition" AND "problem solving" OR "problem solving skills" search pattern in Turkish and English from 15.11.2020 to 30.11.2020.
The literature review resulted in 9296 studies in total. Firstly, the studies were investigated through their titles and abstracts and 9106 studies were eliminated due to some reasons (e.g., duplicates, not Turkish or English etc.) Then, 190 studies were reviewed by two researchers and 147 of them were excluded due to some reasons (e.g., not a correlation one, did not report the necessary statistical data, etc.). Finally, 43 studies were included in the analysis. Since more than one data were shared in some of these studies, meta-analysis was conducted with 49 data (from 43 unique studies). Flow diagram for literature review can be seen in Figure 1.
Then, the bibliographies of the collected studies were examined in detail and it was tried to reach other studies. However, no study that can be included in the analysis has been found. In short, total sample number of the studies included in meta-analysis was 11829.
CODING of STUDIES
The studies were coded with a coding form. The form contains information such as year of the study, name of the study, publication type (article, thesis, conference paper), author(s), sample characteristics, countries where the study was carried out, the measurement tool used and the data required for ES calculations. The studies involved in the analysis were coded by two independent people (author of this study and a second person who has meta-analysis experience). Full consistency was seen between the coders (r=1.00).
DATA ANALYSIS and INTERPRETATION
The ES was calculated using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) package program. The Pearson correlation coefficient and sample size information were used to calculate the ES. While calculating the ES, the Pearson correlation coefficient was first converted to Fisher's Z, analyses were made and then it was converted back to Pearson correlation coefficient. The confidence interval for the calculations was determined as 95% in this study. Upon deciding the level of ESs, less than 0.10, between 0.11 and 0.30, between 0.31 and 0.50, greater than 0.51 were adopted to be very weak, weak, medium and strong, respectively (Cohen et al., 2007).
PB, which is an important problem for the validity of the meta-analysis studies (Kromrey et al., 2006; Rothstein et al., 2005), should be checked before calculating the ES. In this study, funnel plot, Rosenthal's fail-safe N test, Duval and Tweedie's Trim and Fill, and Egger's regression intercept methods were used to check the PB.
According to Hedges and Olkin (1985), Q statistics can be used to investigate heterogeneity. Q value greater than the critical limit in X2 table shows heterogeneity among studies. In addition, the I2 value which may have values between 0% (indicates no heterogeneity) to 100% (indicates high-level heterogeneity) can also be used in checking heterogeneity (Petticrew & Roberts, 2006). Therefore, in this study, in order to decide whether there is heterogeneity or not, the obtained Q and I2 values were examined.
Sub-group analyses were conducted according to sub-groups of region where the study was conducted, CT type (disposition or skill), level of schooling (primary school, secondary school, etc.), discipline (education, science etc.) and publication type (published or unpublished) using Analog ANOVA. With Analog ANOVA, we can compute various Q values such as between-group (Qb), within-group (Qw), and total (Qtotal). Qb value can be used to determine if the moderator variable is a real moderator or not (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). QB value which is significant and less than the critical limit in X2 table indicates that mean ESs vary between categories of the moderator variables.
3 | Findings
RESULTS on PUBLICATION BIAS
Funnel plot and trim-and-fill methods were employed to check the PB. The funnel plot was shown in Figure
Empty circles in the funnel plots symbolize the studies involved in meta-analysis and the black ones refer to the imaginary studies which must be involved to eliminate PB totally (Duval & Tweedie, 2000). Also, symmetrically distributed funnel plot indicates no PB. As presented in Figure 2, we can say that the funnel plot seems symmetric. Furthermore, trim-and-fill method showed that only seven studies must be included to eliminate the PB totally. Given the ESs were computed (49) in this study, it can be said that these imaginary studies can be neglected. Also, the fail-safe N number (33919) was much greater than the number (255) calculated using the formula of 5k+10 (Fragkos et al., 2014). Besides, Egger's intercept was 0.596 [95% CI=-3.233^t.426], p=0.755. Overall, we can say that there was no PB for this current study.
RESULTS on the RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CRITICAL THINKING and PROBLEM SOLVING
As seen in Table 1, in the random effects model, the ES was 0.483 [95%CI=0.403-0.556] with a standard error of 0.051. Also, the ES was 0.475 [95%CI=0.460-0.488] with a standard error of 0.009 in the fixed effects model. The data were also tested for heterogeneity and Q(df=48) value was found as 1381.45 (p<0.05). The obtained Q value was higher than the critical limit in X2 table (df=48, X2(0.o5)=65.171). Therefore, it can be said that there was heterogeneity among the studies. Also, as seen in Table 1, the calculated I2 value (%96.52) showed a high level of heterogeneity. So, in this study, ES was calculated with random effects model. Indeed, as it is really hard to have homogeneity among the studies conducted in disciplines related to social sciences, meta-analysis with the studies from social sciences should always be conducted with random effects model (Schmidt & Hunter, 2015; Borenstein et al., 2009). The mean ES was calculated as 0.483 according to random effects model. Based on Cohen et al.'s (2007) benchmarks, this value showed that there was a medium and positive relationship between CT and PS.
According to the forest plot, Erdem and Yazicioglu's (2015) study had the largest effect on the mean ES while Junsay's (2016) and Toharudin's (2015) studies had the smallest effect. Besides, out of 49 ESs, only three were negative. So it can be said that there was a positive relationship between CT and PS.
RESULTS on the SUB-GROUP ANALYSES
As it can be seen in Table 2, the heterogeneity value of the sub-group of region (QB=0.913; p>0.05), CT type (Qb=3.340; p>0.05), level of schooling (QB=5.062; p>0.05), discipline (QB=1.650; p>0.05) and publication type (Qb=1.279; p>0.05) were less than the X2 table critical values. So, we can say that there was not a statistically significant difference between the categories of the moderator variables. In other words, the magnitude of the relationship between CT and PS did not differ according to region, CT type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type.
4 | Discussion & Conclusion
The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship (direction and magnitude) between CT and PS. For this purpose, the findings of the previous studies that are about the relationship between CT and PS were analyzed with meta-analysis method. After literature review, 43 studies that met the criteria to be included in the study were found and meta-analysis was carried out with 49 data (from 43 unique studies).
The ES of the association between CT and PS was found to be 0.483 and this ES did not differ according to sub-groups of region, CT type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type. Based on the views in the literature which state that CT and PS skills are closely related (Hickman, 1993; Fisher, 2005), we can say that a medium and positive relation between CT and PS is an expected result. According to MacPherson (1997) individuals' CT skills and dispositions are important in order to develop PS skills. In addition, CT dispositions are effective in PS activities (Barile, 2003) and CT skills are used while solving problems (Pereira, 2014). So, results of this study are confirmed by the previous research. Also, it is possible to find other studies concluding trainings designed to develop CT also improved PS (I§iklar & Abah Oztiirk, 2022; Kanbay & Okanli, 2017; Shim et al., 2019). Therefore, the fact that activities designed to develop CT improve both CT and PS support the existence of a strong relationship between these higher-order thinking skills. In their study which aims to examine the relationships among CT dispositions, metacognitive awareness, and PS of students using structural equation model, Boran and Karakus. (2022) found that CT dispositions and PS are significantly related to each other. Also, Ozgenel (2018) found that CT dispositions were a significant predictor of PS in his study. Similarly, Kutluca (2018) concluded that CT significantly predicted PS in his study aiming to investigate how some cognitive elements including CT affect PS skills. Besides, Orhan (2022) concluded that CT dispositions significantly predicted PS skills in his study. Besides, there are some other studies indicating CT and PS are closely related to each other (Kanbay & Okanli, 2017; Lismayani et al., 2017; Pereira, 2014; Song et al., 2022). Therefore, we can say that the results of previous research support this study.
According to sub-groups analyses, we can say that both CT skills and dispositions are strongly related to PS and this relationship is constant for all school levels and disciplines. This canbe seen as an important result because it shows us the close relationship between CT and PS at all school levels and disciplines. Also, it shows us that both CT skills and dispositions which are two main components of CT are significantly related to PS skills.
In short, it was found that there was a positive and medium relationship between CT and PS in this metaanalysis study. Previous literature indicated that CT is significantly associated with PS. The results of this metaanalysis study also support and contribute to this theoretical relationship. Therefore, it can be said that improvement of CT and PS skills should be aimed together in class because any improvement in one of these higher order thinking skills will also have positive effect on the other one.
LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR OTHER STUDIES
This study has several limitations. Firstly, it is hard to decide the direction of the relationship between two variables with correlation studies. This limitation can be seen as an obstacle that limits correlation studies. Therefore, this can be shown as the first limitation of this study which aimed to calculate a general ES by using the results of correlation studies in the literature. In other words, it is impossible to answer the question of whether the PS skills are high because of high CT skills or whether the CT skills are high because of high PS skills. So, other studies should be carried out to reveal the association between CT and PS more clearly. Secondly, we can say that this study may have method bias because just correlational studies were involved in the analysis. So, the results of experimental studies can also be used in future meta-analyses. Lastly, this study is limited in its scope because it only included the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References
Agikgoz, K. U. (2016). Etkili ogrenme ve ogretme [Effective learning and teaching]. Bilis, Publishing.
Al-Zou'bi, R. (2021). The impact of media and information literacy on acquiring the critical thinking skill by the educational faculty's students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 39, 1-7.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Problem solving and learning. American Psychologist, 48(1), 35-44.
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R., & Bloom, B. S. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
Angelo, T. A. (1995). Beginning the dialogue: Thoughts on promoting critical thinking: Classroom assessment for critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 6-7.
Barile, J. A. (2003). The role critical thinking dispositions play in the problem solving and decision making of urban elementary school principals [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of Massachusetts.
Beyer, B. (1995). Critical thinking. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Bittner, N. & D. Tobin (1998). Critical thinking: Strategies of clinical practice. Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 14(6), 267-272.
Boran, M. & Karaku§, F. (2022). The mediator role of critical thinking disposition in the relationship between perceived problem-solving skills and metacognitive awareness of gifted and talented students. Participatory Educational Research, 9(1), 61-72.
Borenstein, M, Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Bransford, J. D. & Stein, B. S. (1993). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity. W. H. Freeman & Co Ltd.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. Routledge.
Demiral, S. (2019). Critical thinking and problem-solving skills of visually impaired female national judo team athletes. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 7(3), 8-16.
Duval, S. & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: A simple funnel-plot-based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455-463.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction - executive summary - the Delphi report. The California Academic Press.
Facione, P. A. (1998). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Academy Press.
Facione, P. A. (2000). The disposition toward critical thinking: Its character, measurement and relationship to critical thinking skill. Journal of Informal Logic, 20(1), 61-84.
Fisher, R. (2005). Teaching children to think. Nelson Thornes Ltd.
Fragkos, K. C, Tsagris, M., & Frangos, C. C. (2014). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Confidence intervals for Rosenthal's fail-safe number. International Scholarly Research Notices, 1-17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/825383.
Friedel, C. R, Irani, T. A, Rhoades, E. B., Fuhrman, N. E. & Gallo, M. (2008). It's in the genes: Exploring relationships between critical thinking and problem solving in undergraduate agriscience students' solution to problems in medelian genetics. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(A), 25-37.
Gulunay, Y. L (2016). An analysis of critical thinking and problem solving skills of students in physical education and sport teaching department according to several variables: The case of Karabuk University [Unpublished master's thesis). Gazi University.
Halpern, D. (2003). Thought & knowledge: An introduction to critical thinking. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Hedges, L. V. & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Academic Press.
Hickman, J. (1993). A critical assessment of critical thinking in nursing education. Holistic Nursing Practice, 7(3), 36-47.
Hunter, J. E. & Schmidt, F. L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Sage Publications.
I§iklar, S. & Abali Oztiirk, Y. (2022). The effect of philosophy for children (P4C) curriculum on critical thinking through philosophical inquiry and problem solving skills. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 9(1), 130-142.
Irwanto, Saputro, A. D., Rohaeti, E. & Prodjosantoso, A. K. (2018). Promoting critical thinking and problem solving skills of preservice elementary teachers through process-oriented guided-inquiry learning (POGIL). International Journal of Instruction, 11(4), 777-794.
Junsay, M. L. (2016). Reflective learning and prospective teachers' conceptual understanding, critical thinking, problem solving and mathematical communication skills. Research in Pedagogy, 6(2), 43-58. TT' 1 TT' /^A^ 1 \ T">1 * .CI -C 11 1 A* A * 11 A. J A 5 *A* 1,1' 1 ' 1 j_
Kaeppel, K. (2021). The influence of collaborative argument mapping on college students critical thinking about contentious arguments. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 40, 100809, 1-9.
Kanbay, Y. & Okanli, A. (2017). The effect of critical thinking education on nursing students' problem-solving skills. Contemporary Nurse, 53(3), 313-321, doi:10.1080/10376178.2017.1339567.
Kaya, B. (2008). Assessing social studies preservice teachers' self-efficacy towards teaching thinking skills [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. Gazi University.
Kim, K. S. & Choi, J. H. (2014). The relationship between problem solving ability, professional self-concept, and critical thinking disposition of nursing students. International Journal of Bio-Science and Bio-Technology, 6(5), 131-142. http://dx.doi.Org/10.14257/ijbsbt.2014.6.5.13.
Kousar, R. & Afzal, M. (2021). The effects of problem based learning on critical thinking and problem solving skills among midwifery students. Pakistan Journal of Medical & Health Sciences, 15(A), 722-725.
Kromrey, J. D. & Rendina-Gobioff, G (2006). On knowing what we do not know: An empirical comparison of methods to detect publication bias in meta-analysis. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(3), 357-373.
Kutluca, A. Y. (2018). The investigation of variables predicting prospective teachers' problem solving skills. Asian Journal of Instruction, 6(1), 1-20.
Lam, R. W. & Kennedy, S. H. (2005). Using meta-analysis to evaluate evidence: Practical tips and traps. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(3), 167-174.
Lipman,M. (1988). Critical thinking-What can it be?. Educational Leadership, 46(1), 38-43.
Lipsey, M. W. & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. SAGE Publishing.
Lismayani, I., Parno, P., & Mahanal, S. (2017). The correlation of critical thinking skill and science problem-solving ability of junior high school students. Jurnal Pendidikan Sains, 5(3), 96-101.
MacPherson, R. T. (1997). The relationship among content knowledge, technical experience, cognitive styles, critical thinking skills, problem solving styles, and near transfer trouble shooting technological problem solving skills of maintenance technicians [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of Missouri.
Memduhoglu, H. B. & Kele§, E. (2016). Evaluation of the relation between critical-thinking tendency and problem-solving skills of pre-service teachers. Journal of Educational Sciences Research, 6(2), 75-94.
Meyers, C. (1998). Teaching students to think critically. Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Morgan, C. T., King, R. A., Weiss, J. R., & Schopler, J. (2017). Introduction to psychology. Mc Graw Hill India.
Nosich, G. (2011). Learning to think things through: A guide to critical thinking across the curriculum. Pearson.
Orhan, A. (2022, online first). Critical thinking dispositions and decision making as predictors of high school students' perceived problem solving skills. Journal of Educational Research, https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2022.2113498.
Partnership for 21st Century Learning (P21). (2009). Framework for 21st century learning. Access link: https://www.teacherrambo.eom/file.php/l/21st_century_skills.pdf.
Paul, R. (1990). Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world. Center for Critical Thinking and Moral Critique.
Paul, R. & Elder, L. (2001). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your learning and your life. Prentice Hall.
Pereira, A. (2014). Examining critical and creative thinking of high school students making art in a learner-directed art class [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Florida State University.
Petticrew, M. & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. Blackwell Publishing.
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The 'file drawer' problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86,638-641.
Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J. & Borenstein, M. (Eds.). (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments. John Wiley and Sons.
Schmidt, F. L. & Hunter, J. E. (2015). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. SAGE Publications, Inc.
Shim, C. S., Kang, S.J., Kim, Y. M. & Shin, H. J. (2019). The effects of simulation-based education program on communication ability, problem solving ability and critical thinking among nursing students. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 10(11), 4418-4423.
Springer, L., Stanne, M. E. & Donovan, S. S. (1999). Effects of small-group learning on undergraduates in science, mathematics, engineering, and technology: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, 61(1), 21-51.
Song, Y., Lee, Y., & Lee, J. (2022). Mediating effects of self-directed learning on the relationship between critical thinking and problem-solving in student nurses attending online classes: A cross-sectional descriptive study. Nurse Education Today, 109(105221), 1-5.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999a). A triarchic approach to the understanding and assessment of intelligence in multicultural populations. Journal of School Psychology, 37, 145-159.
Sternberg, R. J. (1999b). Thinking styles. Cambridge University Press.
Ttimkaya S., Aybek, B. & Aldag, H. (2009). An investigation of university students' critical thinking disposition and perceived problem solving skills. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 36, 51-14.
Watson, G. & Glaser, M. E. (1964). Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal manual for forms YM and ZM. Harcourt, Brace & World Inc.
Van Gelder, T. (2005). Teaching critical thinking: Some lessons from cognitive science. College Teaching, 53(1), 41-48.
Appendix A: Studies about the Relationship between Critical Thinking and Problem Solving Included in Meta-Analysis
Cansoy, R. & Tiirkoglu, M. E. (2017). Examining the relationship between pre-Service teachers' critical thinking disposition, problem solving skills and teacher self-efficacy. International Education Studies; 10(6), 23-35.
Cankaya, §. & Serin, O. (2018). Analysis of the relationship between school heads' leadership, problem solving and critical thinking skills. Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies, 8(1), 26-40.
Demiral, S. (2019). Critical thinking and problem-solving skills of visually impaired female national judo team athletes. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 7(3), 8-16.
Eom, S., Choi, Y. & Lee, B. (2019). The influence of problem-solving ability and critical thinking on the major satisfaction of dental hygiene student-focused on mediating effects of critical Thinking-. Journal of the Korea Convergence Society, 10(12), 151-158.
Erdem, A. R. & Yazicioglu, A. (2015). The relation between teacher candidates' ability of solving problems and critical thinking. OPUS, 5(9), 27,40.
Erdem, A. R. & Gene, G (2015). The relation between high school students' ability of solving problems and critical thinking. OPUS, 5(8), 32-44.
Erzincanli, S. & Zaybak, A. (2015). The relationship between critical thinking disposition and problem solving skills in nurses. International Refereed Journal of Nursing Researches, 2(3), 37-38.
Gulunay, Y. L (2016). An analysis of critical thinking and problem solving skills of students in physical education and sport teaching department according to several variables: The case of Karabuk University (Unpublished master thesis). Gazi University, Ankara.
Irwanto, Saputro, A. D., Rohaeti, E. & Prodjosantoso, A. K. (2018). Promoting critical thinking and problem solving skills of preservice elementary teachers through process-oriented guided-inquiry learning (POGIL). International Journal of Instruction, 11(4), 777-794.
Jeong, H. (2015). Critical thinking disposition, problem solving process, and empathy among Nursing Students. Advanced Science and Technology Letters, 103, 44-48.
Junsay, M. L. (2016). Reflective learning and prospective teachers' conceptual understanding, critical thinking, problem solving, and mathematical communication skills. Research in Pedagogy, 6(2), 43-58.
Kanbay, Y. & Okanli, A. (2017). The effect of critical thinking education on nursing students' problem-solving skills. Contemporary Nurse, 53(3), 313-321.
Karadeniz, A. (2016). The relationship between faculty of education students' argumentation skills and critical thinking, creative thinking and problem solving skills. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology: Special Issue for INTE (December), 1057-1061.
Kirmizi, F. S., Saygi, C. & Yurdakal, L H. (2015). Determine the relationship between the disposition of critical thinking and the perception about problem solving skills. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 191, 657-661.
Kim, H. & Han, S. (2016). The survey on the influence of clinical nurse's critical thinking disposition, problem-solving skill and self-efficacy on patients' safety competencies. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society, 17(6), 598-608.
Kim, J. & Choi, H. J. (2018). Effects of capstone design program on creative leadership, problem solving ability and critical thinking. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 18(4), 406-415.
Kim, J. & Kim, Y. (2016). The effects of simulation practice education Applying problem-based learning on problem solving ability, critical thinking and learning satisfaction of nursing students. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 16(12), 203-212.
Kim, M. Y. & Byun, E. K. (2019). Influence of academic self-efficacy, critical thinking disposition, and learning motivation on problem solving ability in nursing students. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society, 20(1), 376-383.
Kim, Y. & Kim, Y. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy, and critical thinking disposition on problem solving ability of nursing students. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society, 17(9), 589-598.
Kim, Y. (2020). Mediating effect of self-leadership relationship between critical thinking and problem solving ability of nursing university students. Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial Cooperation Society, 21(1), 100-108.
Kozikoglu, I. (2019). Investigating critical thinking in prospective teachers: Metacognitive skills, problem solving skills and academic self-efficacy. Journal of Social Studies Education Research, 10(2), 111-130.
Kutluca, A. Y. (2018). The investigation of variables predicting prospective teachers' problem solving skills. Asian Journal of Instruction, 6(1), 1-20.
Kuzu, Y. (2015). Analyzing the relation between the problem solving abilities and critical thinking tendencies of teacher candidates (The sample of Ahi Evran University) (Unpublished master thesis). Ahi Evran University, Kir§ehir.
Kwak, H. (2018). Effects of critical thinking disposition, problem-solving ability and frustration tolerance on college adaptation in nursing students. Journal of Digital Convergence, 16(8), 233-242.
Lee, J., Lee, S. & Kim, H. (2017). The effects of critical thinking disposition and problem solving ability on the work performance assessment of dental hygienists. The Journal of Dental Hygiene Science, 17(4), 275-282.
Memdugoglu, H. B. & Kele§, E. (2016). Evaluation of the relation between critical-thinking tendency and problem-solving skills of pre-service teachers. Journal of Educational Sciences Research, 6(2), 75-94.
Ozgenel, M. (2017). The relationship pattern of school administrators' creative and critical thinking dispositions with decision making style and problem solving skills (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Marmara University, Istanbul.
Ozyurt, H. & Ozyurt, O. (2015). Problem solving skills and critical thinking dispositions of electric/electronic engineering students: Case of Karadeniz Technical University. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 11(4), 1124-1142.
Ozyurt, O. (2015). Examining the critical thinking dispositions and the problem solving skills of computer engineering students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 1(2), 353-361.
Pu, D., Ni, j., Song, D., Zhang, W., Wang, Y., Wu, L., Wang, X. & Yun Wang, Y. (2019). Influence of critical thinking disposition on the learning efficiency of problem-based learning in undergraduate medical students. BMC Medical Education, 19(1), 1-8.
Shim, C. S., Kang, S.J., Kim, Y. M. & Shin, H. J. (2019). The effects of simulation-based education program on communication ability, problem solving ability and critical thinking among nursing students. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 10(11), 4418-4423.
Shim, H. & Lee, H. & Kim, E. (2017). A study on the critical thinking and problem-solving abilities of dental hygiene students. Journal of Korean Society of Dental Hygiene, 17(6), 1171-1182.
Sitindaon, S. F., Bukit, N. & Turnip, B. M. (2017). The effect of guided inquiry learning using PhET media on students' problem solving skill and critical thinking. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(21), 129-134.
Sun, L. 0. & Goo, N. Y. (2017). The relationship among emotional intelligence, critical thinking disposition, professional self-concept and problem solving skills for nursing students. Journal of Digital Convergence, 75(12), 349-358.
Susanti, E. & Hartono (2019). An analysis mathematical problem solving and mathematical critical thinking skills of junior high school students. IOP Conf. Series: Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1320, 1-6.
§ahin, C. & Kumcagiz, H. (2017). The relationship between critical thinking disposition, problem solving, and empathetic tendency in counselor candidates. SHS Web of Conferences, 37, 1-8.
Toharudin, U. (2017). Critical thinking and problem solving skills: How these skills are needed in educational psychology?. International Journal of Science and Research, 6(3), 2004-2007.
Tomczyk, L., Vanek, B., Pavlov, I., Karikova, S., Biresova, B. & Kryston, M. (2018). Critical thinking, problem-solving strategies and individual development assessment among NEETs-research conducted in Slovakia, Poland and Estonia. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 37(6), 701-718.
Woo, C, Yoo, J. Y. & Park, J. (2015). The relationship among hesitation factor of questions, critical thinking disposition, and problem solving: The university student's perspective. The Journal of Korean Academic Society of Nursing Education, 21(3), 320-329.
Yang, S. & Sim, I. (2016). Relationship between problem solving ability, critical thinking disposition, creativity, self-efficacy and nursing process competence of nursing students. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 16(5), 612-622.
Yildinm, H. L & §ensoy, O. (2017). An Investigation of the critical thinking dispositions of pre-service science teachers according to some variables. Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, 37(2), 611-648.
Yildinm, K. (2019). A study of the relationship between secondary school students' argumenting skills and critical thinking, problem solving and creative thinking skills (Unpublished master thesis). Kir§ehir Ahi Evran University, Kir§ehir.
Ytiksel, A., Anba§, A. N. & Bahardir Yilmaz, E. (2020). The relationship between critical thinking and problem solving skills: Case of health services students. The Journal of Social Science, 4(1), 160-174.
You have requested "on-the-fly" machine translation of selected content from our databases. This functionality is provided solely for your convenience and is in no way intended to replace human translation. Show full disclaimer
Neither ProQuest nor its licensors make any representations or warranties with respect to the translations. The translations are automatically generated "AS IS" and "AS AVAILABLE" and are not retained in our systems. PROQUEST AND ITS LICENSORS SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIM ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMITATION, ANY WARRANTIES FOR AVAILABILITY, ACCURACY, TIMELINESS, COMPLETENESS, NON-INFRINGMENT, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. Your use of the translations is subject to all use restrictions contained in your Electronic Products License Agreement and by using the translation functionality you agree to forgo any and all claims against ProQuest or its licensors for your use of the translation functionality and any output derived there from. Hide full disclaimer
© 2022. This work is published under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License.
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the relationship (direction and magnitude) between critical thinking and problem solving by combining the results of the studies carried out between 01.01.2015-30.11.2020 via meta-analysis. In this study, which is a metaanalysis study, PRISMA guidelines were followed. The studies obtained after searching the relevant literature through some electronic databases using search patterns were reviewed by two researchers in terms of inclusion criteria and 43 studies were included. Since more than one data were shared in some of these studies, meta-analysis was carried out with 49 data. The mean effect size of the relationship between critical thinking and problem solving was 0.483 under random effects model which indicated that there was a medium relationship between critical thinking and problem solving. This effect size did not differ according to subgroups of region, critical thinking type, level of schooling, discipline and publication type. The results obtained in this study are confirmed by theoretical background regarding critical thinking and problem solving and previous studies.