Cannabis sativa Cannabinoids as Functional Ingredients in Snack Foods—Historical and Developmental Aspects

Abstract

The published health benefits of Cannabis sativa has caught the attention of health-conscious consumers and the food industry. Historically, seeds have long been utilized as a food source and currently there is an increasing number of edibles on the market that contain cannabis. Cannabinoids include the psychoactive constituent, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and the non-psychoactive cannabidiol (CBD) that are both compounds of interest in Cannabis sativa. This paper looks at the distribution of nutrients and phytocannabinoids in low-THC Cannabis sativa, the historical uses of hemp, cannabis edibles, and the possible side-effects and concerns related to cannabis edibles. Several authors have pointed out that even though the use of cannabis edibles is considered safe, it is important to mention their possible side-effects and any concerns related to its consumption that negatively influence consumer acceptance of cannabis edibles. Such risks include unintentional overdose by adults and accidental ingestion by children and adolescents resulting in serious adverse effects. Therefore, cannabis edibles should be specifically packaged and labelled to differentiate them from known similar non-cannabis edibles so that, together with tamperproof packaging, these measures reduce the appeal of these products to children.

1. Introduction

Food products infused with chemical compounds that possess health benefits beyond basic nutrition [1] are piquing the interest of health-conscious consumers and the pharmaceutical and food industries. Such interest has intensified since cannabis was legalized for private use in some countries, including South Africa [2], and while the sale and distribution of high-content THC cannabis remains prohibited, some products that contain lower amounts of THC and other cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD) have either been lowered or removed as a scheduled drug [3]. Among such products are cannabinoid-infused food products, beverages and oils, also known as cannabis edibles, that can exert their beneficial effects by modulating human cannabinoid receptors [4].

Cannabis is a generic term describing an annual herbaceous plant that belongs to the Cannabaceae family [5,6] with Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica [7] and, though still debated, Cannabis ruderalis recognized as the three main species in cannabis [8]. Cannabis sativa contains an abundance of non-nutritive, bioactive phytochemicals known as phytocannabinoids, with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) as phytocannabinoids of particular interest. Cannabis sativa plants containing less than a specified amount of THC in dried weight are also known as hemp. In certain European countries, THC levels should not exceed 0.2%. In the United States of America (USA) [9,10,11] and Canada [12], THC levels of up to 0.3% are acceptable while the allowable limit is up to 1% in Switzerland [13]. Cannabis sativa plants containing more than the specified THC limit (high THC or marijuana) are considered as schedule 1 drugs [14,15]. Therefore, high-THC cannabis is categorized with substances that are defined as having the “highest potential for abuse”, “no currently accepted medical use”, and as not having “accepted safety for use under medical supervision” [16].

Those who use the aerial parts of the marijuana plants, such as the leaves and flowers, became intoxicated after smoking and when smoking on a regular basis, may have a notable increase in the incidence of health risks such as mental illnesses [17]. As a result, these plants were perceived as criminal and unacceptable to communities because most consumers could not differentiate between psychoactive and non-psychoactive cannabis plants. In contrast, the use of cannabis plants with low levels of THC in medicine and foods is based on various, potentially beneficial cannabinoid compounds [18] including CBD [5]. The use of CBD may effectively treat a wide range of diseases and disorders including epilepsy, neurodegenerative diseases, neuropsychiatric disorders and rheumatic diseases [19]. Plants are also used in other industries such as textiles, building material [20], ornamental [21], biomedical and food industries [22]. This paper reviews low-THC Cannabis sativa (or hemp plants) and associated cannabinoid CBD as a functional ingredient in food products.

2. Distribution of Nutrients and Phytocannabinoids in Low-THC Cannabis sativa

2.1. Nutrients

Many consumers are uninformed regarding the nutritional benefits associated with Cannabis sativa, or hemp, plants, despite a considerable amount of scientific proof [9,23,24]. Figure 1 indicates that the stems, seeds, roots and flowers of the hemp plant are a substantial source of nutrients (fat, fiber, ash, protein and vitamins). In addition, Figure 1 indicates the relative amounts of phytocannabinoids such as delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabigerol (CBG) that could be found in the respective parts of the plant [23,25,26]. The most common parts of the hemp plant eaten by humans are the seeds that contain 25 to 35% total lipids, and proteins ranging between 20 and 30% that are highly digestible with substantial amounts of essential amino acids, as well as 20 to 30% total carbohydrates, an ash content of 3.7 to 5.9% and 25 to 28% total dietary fiber [26,27,28,29].

Proteins found in the hemp seed are legumin-type globulin edestin (67 to 75%) and globular-type albumin (25 to 37%) [9] but, like most plant proteins [30], the seeds are low in the essential amino acid, lysine [9]. Many of the health-promoting properties of these seeds are ascribed to their high levels of essential fatty acids (EFA) such as linolenic and linoleic fatty acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids [27,31,32].

2.2. Phytocannabinoids

Around 110 different cannabinoids have been identified in cannabis [18,33]. Cannabinoids are mostly concentrated in the glandular trichomes (hairy outgrowths) of flowering plants, liverworts, and fungi [34]. Thus, hemp plants contain many non-psychoactive cannabinoids such as cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), and cannabichromene (CBC) along with other non-cannabinoid compounds belonging to various classes of natural products [35]. CBD is abundantly distributed across the different parts of the hemp plant, with leaves having the highest (2%) followed by the stem (1.8%) and the seeds having the lowest concentration (0.02%) [26]. Some of these cannabinoids may be used to treat human ailments such as pain, anxiety and cachexia [34,36], to stimulate appetite, and to act as an antiemetic [37]. The primary metabolites (amino acids, fatty acids, and steroids) in low-THC hemp plants are used to synthesize secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, terpenoids, lignans, alkaloids and phytocannabinoids [38], the latter being characterized by a C21 terpenophenolic backbone [18,33]. The synthesis of THC involves the decarboxylation of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (THCA); whereas CBD is a decarboxylated product of cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) [39].

3. Uses of Hemp

Archaeological findings indicate that cannabis has been cultivated for over 6000 years, possibly originating in China [40]. The most popular use of cannabis has involved the psychoactive variant (Cannabis sativa subsp. indica or marijuana) where humans smoke a dry combination of its shredded leaves, stems and flower buds [41]. This has often led to behavior and health disorders (cannabis use disorder) [42] consequently leading consumers to have negative associations with cannabis as a whole [43]. Figure 2 indicates the various parts of hemp plants that have been used to produce a wide range of products including hemp fiber for clothing, rope, paper and medicines [5,11,20,44]. In addition, cosmetics and detergents were prepared from crude extracts of hemp leaves [6,20]. Hemp seeds were used to provide lamp and cooking oil and as a food source [25,44,45,46], which was considered to be of high nutritional value [25,47].

The hemp seed is achene [24]: containing only one seed that nearly fills the pericarp and does not split open when the seeds are ripe [48]. The hulled seed is greenish grey in color [49] with a pleasant, nutty taste [50]. It is oval or spherical in shape with green spots due to plant tissue beneath the epidermis [24]. Figure 3 shows the unshelled seed as well as the shelled seed with green specks.

The edible forms of hemp seeds include hulled seed, hempseed oil and its crushed by-products, hemp seed cake, or meal [53]. Hemp seeds, including the hull, were eaten in ancient times for their nutritional and medicinal benefits [47]; whereas, the removal of the hull is considered a recent development [50]. Hemp plants provided for humans who harvested their seeds as a grain either in a meal form (ground), roasted whole, or cooked into porridge [54]. These seeds were also consumed to treat joint pain, malaria, and memory loss [55,56].

More recently, hemp seeds have proven to be a versatile ingredient in food production [57] with the dehulled hemp seed and/or its by-products being successfully incorporated into bread, dairy, meat and energy bars to enhance their nutritional value and sensory properties [9]. When incorporated into food formulations, hemp seeds can impart beneficial bioactive substances that reduce the risks of cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer, and improve gut and immune function [58]. In addition, the inclusion of hemp oil or meal in animal feed has shown promise by increasing animal milk yield and nutritive quality [59], and its incorporation increases the stability of egg yolks [43].

Cannabis arrived in Africa about 1000 years ago and has become an important source of income for rural communities [60]. However, there are limited publications that show how cannabis has been used as a food in Africa. Legalization of the use of cannabis has shifted both low-THC and high-THC cannabis practices from the black market to the legal market where more opportunities for innovation exist. Moreover, acceptance of the value of cannabis is increasing in both scientific and public circles [61], with CBD edibles as the preferred method of consumption [62]. This has resulted in the commercial and domestic development of cannabis edibles such as baked goods, sweets, lozenges, and beverages [63]. This range reflects a growing interest from some major manufacturers in exploring the benefits of hemp-based ingredients to enrich their existing and new food products. This strategy is feasible as most of the current cannabis edibles manufacturers only infuse health-benefitting cannabis extracts into their existing product formulations [25] (Figure 4).

4. Cannabis Edibles

The concept of nutrition has reached a greater audience because of reports describing diet- and lifestyle-related non-communicable diseases [24]. As a result, health-conscious consumers are moving towards a plant-based diet and this shift influences the demand for plant-based proteins such as those found in hemp seed [63]. Several studies reported that the inclusion of hemp seed meal in dough increased the protein and iron content, essential amino acids (lysine, phenylalanine, histidine), fiber, iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) [27,64] to contribute towards the palatability and color of the resulting gluten-free bread [65] and crackers [66].

Apart from the seeds, the inclusion of cannabinoids such as CBD in functional foods could support health and reduce the risk of disease. Food products that contain cannabinoids such as CBD are referred to as cannabis edibles and include a range of products from baked goods and sweets to beverages [25,67]. Though not preferred to smoking, ingesting cannabis has always been a popular method of cannabis consumption [68,69,70,71,72]. Some of these products are indicated in Figure 5. Various snack foods that have been infused with CBD are available in the United States and they include jelly sweets [73], carbonated drinks [74] and snack bars [75]. The names of these products such as “Chill”, “Relax” and “Recess” often hint at the therapeutic effects associated with CBD and the number of countries that permit over-the-counter or online access to CBD products is on the rise [76]. However, only one product, intended for medicinal use, containing CBD has been approved by the FDA for human consumption (Epidiolex^®) and claiming CBD as a dietary supplement is currently illegal in the United States [77].

Edibles usage is classified into medicinal and recreational purposes [63]. About 16–26% of health-conscious patients consume cannabis edibles for medicinal purposes [78] but there is a scarcity of data available on the usage of cannabis for recreational purposes. Globally, biscuits, cookies and candies are popular ready-to-eat snacks consumed across age groups. Consequently, the manufacturers of cannabis edibles available in South Africa have taken advantage of these snacks by infusing their formulations with cannabis extracts [79].

Figure 5

Some cannabis edibles on the South African market [79].

[Figure omitted. See PDF]

South Africa permits some general, low-risk health maintenance or health enhancement claims on sold CBD products. However, the permitted amount of CBD per serving should not exceed 20 mg and the sales pack may not exceed a total of 600 mg of CBD [3] and should contain less than 0.001% THC [80]; whereas, in the USA, edibles should contain less than 0.3% THC and CBD at levels between 10 and 1500 mg [81]. Despite these regulations, there are concerns about some errors in labelling where the cannabinoid concentration of the edibles does not correspond with the content recorded on the labels [38]. Some edibles have been found to contain either less or more cannabinoid content than the amount claimed on the label [82]. Figure 5 indicates some of the edibles available on the South African market, containing between 16–150 mg CBD per sales pack and 5–20 mg CBD per serving [79]. Yet, many consumers remain skeptical about trying cannabis edibles and the next section will elaborate on the possible side-effects and concerns related to the ingestion of hemp.

Just as smoking cannabis may have side-effects, consuming edibles may also have pharmacokinetic effects [63] whose symptoms may be delayed as ingested cannabis needs to be metabolized before being absorbed in the intestines. Such ingestion depends on factors such as previous meals [83], metabolism and body weight, as well as the concentration and type of cannabis or cannabis product [84,85], and can take up to several hours to affect the brain [83,86]. Edibles, therefore, have an increased likelihood of causing an unintended high as the user is often impatient and may consume more of the edible before feeling the effects [86,87,88]. Thus, CBD, taken in doses in excess of 1500 mg, may exert side-effects [89].

5. Possible Side-Effects and Concerns Related to Cannabis Edibles

Cannabidiol (CBD) and CBD-products for private use are increasing in popularity amongst European [90], South African [91], American and Canadian consumers [92]. Accordingly, it is necessary to list some medical and social concerns relating to the ingestion of cannabis edibles. Due to the novelty of CBD, there has not yet been a validated method to assess and verify purity and CBD content [93] and claims on CBD products are currently unregulated and unverified [94]. This uncertainty regarding risks has resulted in only one CBD product being approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [95] particularly because CBD is not yet classified as a food supplement nor as a medical drug [96].

Secondly, there is concern regarding either intentional or accidental adulteration or contamination of cannabis edibles that might be harmful to the consumer, including heavy metal and pesticide contamination [97], contamination by toxic residual solvents used to extract CBD [98] or THC, and synthetic cannabinoid contamination of CBD [93,96,99,100]. In addition, relatively little is known about the chronic and hormonal effects following ingestion of CBD or its interactions with other drugs [93,95,101]. In general, there are considerable knowledge gaps amongst consumers as well as medical professionals regarding CBD dosage [102,103], possible side-effects or when to seek medical assistance [93,104]. Interestingly, the FDA has only approved CBD with THC levels of less than 0.3% for use in cosmetic products [105,106] and intoxication from consuming cannabis edibles may vary from person to person [105] who present with various symptoms [63].

A major concern surrounds pediatric exposure to cannabis edibles [107]. A study [108] reported that around 46% of Canadians were willing to try cannabis edibles but older respondents expressed concern about the health risks for children in households in which cannabis edibles were consumed [109,110]. These concerns are strengthened by the fact that most cannabis edibles are shaped and packaged in a manner that mimics known edibles such as cookies, brownies, gummies and candy. Thus, children may not know the difference between cannabis-infused and normal edibles and naturally assume that cannabis edibles are ordinary treats [107]. As a result, various cases have been reported regarding unintentional exposure of cannabis edibles to children [41,42,108,110,111].

With this range of concerns regarding the ingestion of cannabis edibles from production lines that may have lax quality assurance measures leading to the production and sale of cannabis edibles with unwanted constituents, it is essential that legislation prescribing cannabis product preparation and labelling should be clear and enforceable [93].

6. Conclusions

Cannabis sativa possesses many health-promoting qualities and so it has played an effective role as a traditional medicine to treat a variety of ailments from pain, anxiety and weight gain through to conditions such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes, as well as infectious diseases such as malaria, and cancer. Opinion regarding cannabis edibles is changing amongst consumers and most countries around the world are shifting towards the legalization of the recreational and medicinal use of cannabis leading to a rapid increase in the global acceptance and availability of cannabis edibles. A wide range of products infused with cannabis extracts are currently available on the market and, unfortunately, this increases the possibility of side-effects to the consumer. Not only are most cannabis edibles not regulated, but there is risk of accidental ingestion of cannabis, particularly by children. Such incidences are on the rise in those countries where cannabis has been legalized or decriminalized. Most cannabis edibles have not been approved by the FDA but are currently subject to evaluation regarding long-term safety and cumulative effects in humans. This calls for efficient and effective safety measures to prevent pediatric cannabis poisoning and accidental unintended high when amending policies for cannabis usage. In addition, there must be some form of commercial and consumer awareness regarding the optimal preparation and packaging of cannabis edibles to promote their safe and enjoyable consumption.

Author Contributions

Initial conceptualization, M.K.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K., T.v.E. and D.B.; writing—review and editing, T.v.E. and D.B.; supervision, project administration, T.v.E. and D.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by UNISA-CAES HEALTH RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (: 2021/CAES_HREC/038REC Reference#, 04/03/2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the language editing and proof-reading services of John Dewar.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Figures

Figure 1. Nutritional composition and phytocannabinoids present in different parts of the hemp plant [26]. Abbreviations: CBD, cannabidiol; CBG, cannabigerol; THC, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol.

Figure 2. Various uses of the hemp plant [44].

Figure 3. (A) Unshelled hemp seeds [51]; (B) Hulled hemp hearts [52].

Figure 4. Various cannabis edibles in the food and beverage industry [25].

References

1. Liu, R.H. Health-promoting components of fruits and vegetables in the diet. Adv. Nutr.; 2013; 4, pp. 384S-392S. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.112.003517] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23674808]

2. de Villiers, J. Business Insider South Africa. Available online: https://www.businessinsider.co.za/south-africa-constitutional-court-decriminalised-cannabis-weed-dagga-consumption-2018-9 (accessed on 5 September 2022).

3. South African Government Gazette, Schedules. South Africa: Medicines and Related Substances Act, 1965 (ACT 101 of 1965), 2020. Available online: https://www.gov.za/sites/default/files/gcis_document/202005/43347rg11118gon586.pdf (accessed on 25 November 2022).

4. Gonçalves, E.C.D.; Baldasso, G.M.; Bicca, M.A.; Paes, R.S.; Capasso, R.; Dutra, R.C. Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the Cannabis Plant. Molecules; 2020; 25, 1567. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25071567] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32235333]

5. Blebea, N.M.; Rambu, D.; Costache, T.; Negreș, S. Very Fast RP–UHPLC–PDA Method for Identification and Quantification of the Cannabinoids from Hemp Oil. Appl. Sci.; 2021; 11, 9414. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11209414]

6. Shakil, S.; Gowan, M.; Hughes, K.; Azam, M.; Ahmed, M.N. A narrative review of the ethnomedicinal usage of Cannabis sativa Linnaeus as traditional phytomedicine by folk medicine practitioners of Bangladesh. J. Cannabis Res.; 2021; 3, 8. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42238-021-00063-3] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33741060]

7. Montserrat-de la Paz, S.; Marín-Aguilar, F.; García-Giménez, M.D.; Fernández-Arche, M.A. Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seed Oil: Analytical and Phytochemical Characterization of the Unsaponifiable Fraction. J. Agric. Food Chem.; 2014; 62, pp. 1105-1110. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf404278q]

8. McPartland, J.M.; Guy, G.W. Models of Cannabis Taxonomy, Cultural Bias, and Conflicts between Scientific and Vernacular Names. Bot. Rev.; 2017; 83, pp. 327-381. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12229-017-9187-0]

9. Leonard, W.; Zhang, P.; Ying, D.; Fang, Z. Hempseed in food industry: Nutritional value, health benefits, and industrial applications. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf.; 2020; 19, pp. 282-308. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12517]

10. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Regulation of Cannabis and Cannabis-Derived Products, Including Cannabidiol (CBD). Available online: https://www.fda.gov/news-events/public-health-focus/fda-regulation-cannabis-and-cannabis-derived-products-including-cannabidiol-cbd (accessed on 2 November 2022).

11. Zeremski, T.; Kiprovski, B.; Sikora, V.; Miladinović, J.; Tubić, S.B. Fiber hemp as a valuable source of nutrients and nutraceuticals. Proceedings of the III International Congress, Food Technology, Quality and Safety; Novi Sad, Serbia, 25–27 October 2016; pp. 10-15.

12. Cannabidiol (CBD). Available online: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/about/cannabidiol.html (accessed on 3 November 2022).

13. Herzog, S. Cannabis Light’ Paves the Way for the Legalisation of Marijuana. Available online: https://www.swisscommunity.org/en/news-media/swiss-review/article/cannabis-light-paves-the-way-for-the-legalisation-of-marijuana (accessed on 1 November 2022).

14. Marcu, J. Policy with a dab of science. Nature; 2019; 572, 7771. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02531-6]

15. Shah, H.; Fraser, M.; Agdamag, A.C.; Maharaj, V.; Nzemenoh, B.; Martin, C.M.; Alexy, T.; Garry, D.J. Cardiac Transplantation and the Use of Cannabis. Life; 2021; 11, 1063. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life11101063]

16. Andreae, M.H.; Rhodes, E.; Bourgoise, T.; Carter, G.M.; White, R.S.; Indyk, D.; Sacks, H.; Rhodes, R. An Ethical Exploration of Barriers to Research on Controlled Drugs. Am. J. Bioeth. AJOB; 2016; 16, pp. 36-47. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2016.1145282]

17. Henry, J.A.; Oldfield, W.L.; Kon, O.M. Comparing cannabis with tobacco. BMJ; 2003; 326, pp. 942-943. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.326.7396.942] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12727737]

18. Radwan, M.M.; Chandra, S.; Gul, S.; ElSohly, M.A. Cannabinoids, Phenolics, Terpenes and Alkaloids of Cannabis. Molecules; 2021; 26, 2774. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26092774] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34066753]

19. Kicman, A.; Toczek, M. The Effects of Cannabidiol, a Non-Intoxicating Compound of Cannabis, on the Cardiovascular System in Health and Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci.; 2020; 21, 6740. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186740] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32937917]

20. Crini, G.; Lichtfouse, E.; Chanet, G.; Morin-Crini, N. Applications of hemp in textiles, paper industry, insulation and building materials, horticulture, animal nutrition, food and beverages, nutraceuticals, cosmetics and hygiene, medicine, agrochemistry, energy production and environment: A review. Environ. Chem. Lett.; 2020; 18, pp. 1451-1476. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01029-2]

21. Hesami, M.; Pepe, M.; Baiton, A.; Salami, S.A.; Jones, A.M.P. New Insight into Ornamental Applications of Cannabis: Perspectives and Challenges. Plants; 2022; 11, 2383. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants11182383] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/36145783]

22. Azad, M.O.K.; Ryu, B.R.; Rana, M.S.; Rahman, M.H.; Lim, J.-D.; Lim, Y.-S. Enhancing the Cannabidiol (CBD) Compound in Formulated Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Leaves through the Application of Hot-Melt Extrusion. Processes; 2021; 9, 837. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr9050837]

23. Cerino, P.; Buonerba, C.; Cannazza, G.; D’Auria, J.; Ottoni, E.; Fulgione, A.; Di Stasio, A.; Pierri, B.; Gallo, A. A Review of Hemp as Food and Nutritional Supplement. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res.; 2021; 6, pp. 19-27. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/can.2020.0001]

24. Crescente, G.; Piccolella, S.; Esposito, A.; Scognamiglio, M.; Fiorentino, A.; Pacifico, S. Chemical composition and nutraceutical properties of hempseed: An ancient food with actual functional value. Phytochem. Rev.; 2018; 17, pp. 733-749. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11101-018-9556-2]

25. Iftikhar, A.; Zafar, U.; Ahmed, W.; Shabbir, M.A.; Sameen, A.; Sahar, A.; Bhat, Z.F.; Kowalczewski, P.Ł.; Jarzębski, M.; Aadil, R.M. Applications of Cannabis Sativa L. in Food and Its Therapeutic Potential: From a Prohibited Drug to a Nutritional Supplement. Molecules; 2021; 26, 7699. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247699]

26. Martínez, V.; Iriondo De-Hond, A.; Borrelli, F.; Capasso, R.; del Castillo, M.D.; Abalo, R. Cannabidiol and Other Non-Psychoactive Cannabinoids for Prevention and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders: Useful Nutraceuticals?. Int. J. Mol. Sci.; 2020; 21, 3067. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21093067]

27. Rusu, I.-E.; Marc, R.A.; Mureşan, C.C.; Mureşan, A.E.; Filip, M.R.; Onica, B.-M.; Csaba, K.B.; Alexa, E.; Szanto, L.; Muste, S. Advanced Characterization of Hemp Flour (Cannabis sativa L.) from Dacia Secuieni and Zenit Varieties, Compared to Wheat Flour. Plants; 2021; 10, 1237. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants10061237] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34207108]

28. Schluttenhofer, C.; Yuan, L. Challenges towards Revitalizing Hemp: A Multifaceted Crop. Trends Plant Sci.; 2017; 22, pp. 917-929. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.08.004] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28886910]

29. Teterycz, D.; Sobota, A.; Przygodzka, D.; Łysakowska, P. Hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) enriched pasta: Physicochemical properties and quality evaluation. PLoS ONE; 2021; 16, e0248790. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248790] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33735229]

30. Galili, G.; Amir, R. Fortifying plants with the essential amino acids lysine and methionine to improve nutritional quality. Plant Biotechnol. J.; 2013; 11, pp. 211-222. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/pbi.12025]

31. da Porto, C.; Decorti, D.; Tubaro, F. Fatty acid composition and oxidation stability of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide. Ind. Crop. Prod.; 2012; 36, pp. 401-404. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2011.09.015]

32. Kwaśnica, A.; Pachura, N.; Masztalerz, K.; Figiel, A.; Zimmer, A.; Kupczyński, R.; Wujcikowska, K.; Carbonell-Barrachina, A.A.; Szumny, A.; Różański, H. Volatile Composition and Sensory Properties as Quality Attributes of Fresh and Dried Hemp Flowers (Cannabis sativa L.). Foods; 2020; 9, 1118. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods9081118]

33. Rock, E.M.; Parker, L.A. Constituents of Cannabis sativa. Adv. Exper. Med. Biol.; 2021; 1264, pp. 1-13. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-57369-0_1]

34. Gülck, T.; Møller, B.L. Phytocannabinoids: Origins and Biosynthesis. Trends Plant Sci.; 2020; 25, pp. 985-1004. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2020.05.005]

35. ElSohly, M.A.; Radwan, M.M.; Gul, W.; Chandra, S.; Galal, A. Phytochemistry of Cannabis sativa L. Prog. Chem. Org. Nat. Prod.; 2017; 103, pp. 1-36. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_1]

36. Filipiuc, L.E.; Ababei, D.C.; Alexa-Stratulat, T.; Pricope, C.V.; Bild, V.; Stefanescu, R.; Stanciu, G.D.; Tamba, B.-I. Major Phytocannabinoids and Their Related Compounds: Should We Only Search for Drugs That Act on Cannabinoid Receptors?. Pharmaceut; 2021; 13, 1823. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13111823]

37. Morales, P.; Hurst, D.P.; Reggio, P.H. Molecular Targets of the Phytocannabinoids: A Complex Picture. Prog. Chem. Org. Nat. Prod.; 2017; 103, pp. 103-131. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45541-9_4] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28120232]

38. Kanabus, J.; Bryła, M.; Roszko, M.; Modrzewska, M.; Pierzgalski, A. Cannabinoids—Characteristics and Potential for Use in Food Production. Molecules; 2021; 26, 6723. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26216723] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34771132]

39. Namdar, D.; Voet, H.; Ajjampura, V.; Nadarajan, S.; Mayzlish-Gati, E.; Mazuz, M.; Shalev, N.; Koltai, H. Terpenoids and Phytocannabinoids Co-Produced in Cannabis Sativa Strains Show Specific Interaction for Cell Cytotoxic Activity. Molecules; 2019; 24, 3031. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24173031] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31438532]

40. Zuardi, A.W. History of cannabis as a medicine: A review. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr.; 2006; 28, pp. 153-157. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-44462006000200015] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16810401]

41. Carstairs, S.D.; Fujinaka, M.K.; Keeney, G.E.; Ly, B.T. Prolonged coma in a child due to hashish ingestion with quantitation of THC metabolites in urine. J. Emerg. Med.; 2011; 41, pp. e69-e71. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jemermed.2010.05.032] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20634020]

42. Goertemoeller, S. Weeding Out the Toxicity of Marijuana Edibles in Pediatrics. Available online: https://scienceblog.cincinnatichildrens.org/weeding-out-the-toxicity-of-marijuana-edibles-in-pediatrics/ (accessed on 20 October 2022).

43. Mierliță, D. Fatty acids profile and oxidative stability of eggs from laying hens fed diets containing hemp seed or hempseed cake. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci.; 2019; 49, 310. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/sajas.v49i2.11]

44. Farinon, B.; Molinari, R.; Costantini, L.; Merendino, N. The Seed of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.): Nutritional Quality and Potential Functionality for Human Health and Nutrition. Nutrients; 2020; 12, 1935. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12071935]

45. Aluko, R.E. Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Proteins: Composition, Structure, Enzymatic Modification, and Functional or Bioactive Properties. Sustainable Protein Sources; Nadathur, S.R.; Wanasundara, J.P.D.; Scanlin, L. Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2017; pp. 121-132. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802778-3.00007-X]

46. Irakli, M.; Tsaliki, E.; Kalivas, A.; Kleisiaris, F.; Sarrou, E.; Cook, C.M. Effect οf Genotype and Growing Year on the Nutritional, Phytochemical, and Antioxidant Properties of Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seeds. Antioxidants; 2019; 8, 491. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox8100491]

47. Rupasinghe, H.P.V.; Davis, A.; Kumar, S.K.; Murray, B.; Zheljazkov, V.D. Industrial Hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) as an Emerging Source for Value-Added Functional Food Ingredients and Nutraceuticals. Molecules; 2020; 25, 4078. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184078]

48. Gudin, S. Seed Propagation. Reference Module in Life Sciences; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.05093-7]

49. Sirbu, F.D.; Dumitru, I.; Iuga, D.E.; Voicea, I.; Vladut, N.V.; Oprescu, R.M. Considerations regarding hemp harvesting. Proceedings of the International Symposium, ISB-INMA TEH’ 2018, Agricultural and Mechanical Engineering; Bucharest, Romania, 1–3 November 2018; pp. 695-700.

50. Small, E.; Marcus, D. Hemp: A New Crop with New Uses for North America. Trends in New Crops and New Uses; Janick, J.; Whipkey, A. ASHS Press: Alexandria, VA, USA, 2002; pp. 284-326. Available online: https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/ncnu02/v5-284.html (accessed on 20 September 2022).

51. Fenderson, E. Hemp Seeds Cannabis sativa. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hempseed.jpg (accessed on 3 September 2022).

52. Kovář, L. Food Shelled Hemp Seeds. Available online: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Konopne_seminko_loupane.jpg (accessed on 28 August 2022).

53. Malomo, S.A. Structure-Function Properties of Hemp Seed Proteins and Protein-Derived Acetylcholinesterase-Inhibitory Peptides. Doctoral Thesis; University of Manitoba: Winnipeg, MB, Canada, 2015.

54. Clark, R.; Merlin, M. Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany; Univ of California Press: London, UK, 2013; 199.

55. Arias, S.; Leon, M.; Jaimes, D.; Bustos, R.-H. Clinical Evidence of Magistral Preparations Based on Medicinal Cannabis. Pharmaceuticals; 2021; 14, 78. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph14020078]

56. Goldsmith, R.S.; Targino, M.C.; Fanciullo, G.J.; Martin, D.W.; Hartenbaum, N.P.; White, J.M.; Franklin, P. Medical marijuana in the workplace: Challenges and management options for occupational physicians. J. Occ. Environ. Med.; 2015; 57, pp. 518-525. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000000454] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25951421]

57. Oomah, B.D.; Busson, M.; Godfrey, D.V.; Drover, J.C.G. Characteristics of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil. Food Chem.; 2002; 76, pp. 33-43. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00245-X]

58. Samtiya, M.; Aluko, R.E.; Dhewa, T.; Moreno-Rojas, J.M. Potential Health Benefits of Plant Food-Derived Bioactive Components: An Overview. Foods; 2021; 10, 839. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods10040839] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33921351]

59. Mierliță, D. Effects of diets containing hemp seeds or hemp cake on fatty acid composition and oxidative stability of sheep milk. S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci.; 2018; 48, 504. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/sajas.v48i3.11]

60. Duvall, C.S. A brief agricultural history of cannabis in Africa, from prehistory to canna-colony. EchoGéo; 2019; 48, [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4000/echogeo.17599]

61. Salami, S.A.; Martinelli, F.; Giovino, A.; Bachari, A.; Arad, N.; Mantri, N. It Is Our Turn to Get Cannabis High: Put Cannabinoids in Food and Health Baskets. Molecules; 2020; 25, 4036. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25184036]

62. Giombi, K.C.; Kosa, K.M.; Rains, C.; Cates, S.C. Consumers’ Perceptions of Edible Marijuana Products for Recreational Use: Likes, Dislikes, and Reasons for Use. Subst. Use Misuse; 2018; 53, pp. 541-547. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2017.1343353]

63. Barrus, D.G.; Capogrossi, K.L.; Cates, S.C.; Gourdet, C.K.; Peiper, N.C.; Novak, S.P.; Lefever, T.W.; Wiley, J.L. Tasty THC: Promises and Challenges of Cannabis Edibles. Methods Rep.; 2016; [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3768/rtipress.2016.op.0035.1611]

64. Pojić, M.; Dapčević Hadnađev, T.; Hadnađev, M.; Rakita, S.; Brlek, T. Bread Supplementation with Hemp Seed Cake: A By-Product of Hemp Oil Processing. J. Food Qual.; 2015; 38, pp. 431-440. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jfq.12159]

65. Korus, J.; Witczak, M.; Ziobro, R.; Juszczak, L. Hemp (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa) flour and protein preparation as natural nutrients and structure forming agents in starch-based gluten-free bread. LWT; 2017; 84, pp. 143-150. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2017.05.046]

66. Radočaj, O.; Dimić, E.; Tsao, R. Effects of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Seed Oil Press-Cake and Decaffeinated Green Tea Leaves (Camellia sinensis) on Functional Characteristics of Gluten-Free Crackers. J. Food Sci.; 2014; 793, pp. C318-C325. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12370] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24527987]

67. Lindsay, C.M.; Abel, W.D.; Jones-Edwards, E.E.; Brown, P.D.; Bernard, K.K.; Taylor, T.T. Form and content of Jamaican cannabis edibles. J. Cannabis Res.; 2021; 3, 29. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42238-021-00079-9] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/34243817]

68. Borodovsky, J.T.; Crosier, B.S.; Lee, D.C.; Sargent, J.D.; Budney, A.J. Smoking, vaping, eating: Is legalization impacting the way people use cannabis?. Int. J. Drug Policy; 2016; 36, pp. 141-147. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.02.022] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26992484]

69. Hasan, S.S.; Shaikh, A.; Ochani, R.K.; Ashrafi, M.M.; Ansari, Z.N.; Abbas, S.N.; Abbasi, M.K.; Ashraf, M.A.; Ali, W. Perception and practices regarding cannabis consumption in Karachi, Pakistan: A cross-sectional study. J. Ethn. Subst. Abuse; 2021; 20, pp. 471-489. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15332640.2019.1667287]

70. Knapp, A.A.; Lee, D.C.; Borodovsky, J.T.; Auty, S.G.; Gabrielli, J.; Budney, A.J. Emerging Trends in Cannabis Administration Among Adolescent Cannabis Users. J. Adolesc. Health; 2019; 64, pp. 487-493. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.07.012] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30205931]

71. Lisano, J.; Phillips, K.; Smith, J.; Barnes, M.; Stewart, L. Patterns and Perceptions of Cannabis Use with Physical Activity. Cannabis; 2019; 2, pp. 151-164. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.26828/cannabis.2019.02.005]

72. Schauer, G.L.; Njai, R.; Grant-Lenzy, A.M. Modes of marijuana use—Smoking, vaping, eating, and dabbing: Results from the 2016 BRFSS in 12 States. Drug Alcohol Depend.; 2020; 209, 107900. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107900]

73. CBD Edibles. Available online: https://www.diamondcbd.com/collections/cbd-edibles (accessed on 19 July 2022).

74. RECESS, An Antidote to Modern Times. Available online: https://takearecess.com/ (accessed on 7 July 2022).

75. Chill Gummies. Available online: https://boujeeblowz.co/products/watermelon-slices-200mg (accessed on 10 November 2022).

76. McGregor, I.S.; Cairns, E.A.; Abelev, S.; Cohen, R.; Henderson, M.; Couch, D.; Arnold, J.C.; Gauld, N. Access to cannabidiol without a prescription: A cross-country comparison and analysis. Int. J. Drug Policy; 2020; 85, 102935. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102935]

77. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Warns 15 Companies for Illegally Selling Various Products Containing Cannabidiol as Agency Details Safety Concerns. Available online: https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-warns-15-companies-illegally-selling-various-products-containing-cannabidiol-agency-details (accessed on 1 November 2022).

78. Vandrey, R.; Raber, J.C.; Raber, M.E.; Douglass, B.; Miller, C.; Bonn-Miller, M.O. Cannabinoid Dose and Label Accuracy in Edible Medical Cannabis Products. JAMA; 2015; 313, pp. 2491-2493. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.6613]

79. CBD Edibles South Africa. Available online: https://cannabisconnect.co.za/cbd-edibles-south-africa/ (accessed on 22 August 2022).

80. Louw, M. Growing Hemp: Field Crops in South Africa. Available online: https://southafrica.co.za/growing-hemp.html (accessed on 3 November 2022).

81. King, J.W. The relationship between cannabis/hemp use in foods and processing methodology. Curr. Opin. Food Sci.; 2019; 28, pp. 32-40. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cofs.2019.04.007]

82. Johnson, E.; Kilgore, M.; Babalonis, S. Label accuracy of unregulated cannabidiol (CBD) products: Measured concentration vs. label claim. J. Cannabis Res.; 2022; 4, 28. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s42238-022-00140-1] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35658956]

83. Ogletree, K. Here’s What Happens to Your Body When You Eat Edibles. Available online: https://www.eatingwell.com/article/7591435/heres-what-happens-to-your-body-when-you-eat-edibles/ (accessed on 19 October 2022).

84. Ferguson, S. CBD Dosage: Figuring Out How Much to Take. Available online: https://www.healthline.com/health/cbd-dosage (accessed on 20 October 2022).

85. Weil, M. How to Dose THC and CBD. Available online: https://cannigma.com/treatment/how-to-dose-marijuana/ (accessed on 19 October 2022).

86. Grewal, J.K.; Loh, L.C. Health considerations of the legalization of cannabis edibles. Can. Med. Assoc. J.; 2020; 192, pp. E1-E2. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.191217] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31907227]

87. Ellis, R. Why Edibles Hit You So Much Harder than Smoking. Available online: https://www.delish.com/food/a53577/edibles-versus-smoking-marijuana-science/ (accessed on 21 October 2022).

88. Zipursky, J.S.; Bogler, O.D.; Stall, N.M. Edible cannabis. Can. Med. Assoc. J.; 2020; 192, E162. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.191305] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32071107]

89. Robertson, K. Yes, You Can Take Too Much CBD—Here’s What Happens. Available online: https://www.healthline.com/health/cbd-overdose (accessed on 22 October 2022).

90. Hudock, C. Five Key Findings from New Frontier Data’s European CBD Survey. Available online: https://newfrontierdata.com/cannabis-insights/five-key-findings-from-new-frontier-datas-european-cbd-survey/ (accessed on 14 August 2022).

91. Investing in Cannabis in South Africa. Available online: https://www.wesgro.co.za/uploads/files/Invest/Investing-in-cannabis-in-South-Africa.pdf (accessed on 4 September 2022).

92. Kearney, A.T. The Cannabis Opportunity: Research Overview. Available online: https://www.kearney.com/documents/291362523/291366401/The+Cannabis+Opportunity.pdf/bf18db64-c9b9-eb10-013c-4f4c250525a6?t=1608444395000 (accessed on 1 September 2022).

93. Lachenmeier, D.W.; Walch, S.G. Evidence for adverse effects of cannabidiol (CBD) products and their non-conformity on the European food market—Response to the European Industrial Hemp Association. F1000Research; 2021; 9, 1051. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.26045.2]

94. Ash, A. What Is CBD Oil, and Why Is It So Expensive?. Available online: https://www.businessinsider.com/why-cbd-oil-is-so-expensive-2019-12?IR=T (accessed on 27 August 2022).

95. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. What You Need to Know (and What We’re Working to Find Out) about Products Containing Cannabis or Cannabis-Derived Compounds, Including CBD. Available online: https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/what-you-need-know-and-what-were-working-find-out-about-products-containing-cannabis-or-cannabis (accessed on 6 September 2022).

96. Hazekamp, A. The Trouble with CBD Oil. Med. Cannabis Cannabinoids; 2018; 1, pp. 65-72. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000489287]

97. Busse, F.; Omidi, L.; Leichtle, A.; Windgassen, M.; Kluge, E.; Stumvoll, M. Lead Poisoning Due to Adulterated Marijuana. N. Engl. J. Med.; 2008; 358, pp. 1641-1642. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc0707784]

98. Romano, L.L.; Hazekamp, A. Cannabis Oil: Chemical evaluation of an upcoming cannabis-based medicine. Cannabinoids; 2013; 1, pp. 1-11.

99. Scutti, S. Fake Pot’ Causing Zombielike Effects Is 85 Times More Potent than Marijuana. Available online: https://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/16/health/zombie-synthetic-marijuana/index.html (accessed on 3 September 2022).

100. Synthetic Cannabinoids: What Are They?. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/hsb/chemicals/sc/default.html (accessed on 17 August 2022).

101. Iffland, K.; Grotenhermen, F. An Update on Safety and Side Effects of Cannabidiol: A Review of Clinical Data and Relevant Animal Studies. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res.; 2017; 2, pp. 139-154. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1089/can.2016.0034]

102. Giandelone, E.; Luce, M. The CBD Consumer Experience: 1. Available online: https://3fojcc1leuzj9dmih15q1u11-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/High-Yield-Insights-The-CBD-Consumer-Experience-April-2019-full.pdf (accessed on 2 September 2022).

103. Wheeler, M.; Merten, J.W.; Gordon, B.T.; Hamadi, H. CBD (Cannabidiol) Product Attitudes, Knowledge, and Use Among Young Adults. Subst. Use Misuse; 2020; 55, pp. 1138-1145. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1729201]

104. Philpot, L.M.; Ebbert, J.O.; Hurt, R.T. A survey of the attitudes, beliefs and knowledge about medical cannabis among primary care providers. BMC Fam. Pract.; 2019; 20, 17. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12875-019-0906-y]

105. Reboussin, B.A.; Wagoner, K.G.; Sutfin, E.L.; Suerken, C.; Ross, J.C.; Egan, K.L.; Walker, S.; Johnson, R.M. Trends in marijuana edible consumption and perceptions of harm in a cohort of young adults. Drug Alcohol Depend.; 2019; 205, 107660. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107660] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31704375]

106. Sloan, E. Consumers, COVID-19, and CBD Edibles. Available online: https://www.ift.org/news-and-publications/food-technology-magazine/issues/2020/december/columns/consumer-trends-consumers-covid-19-and-cbd-edibles (accessed on 28 August 2022).

107. Vogel, L. Cannabis edibles already harming kids, new data show. Can. Med. Assoc. J.; 2019; 191, E801. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.109-5789] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/31308015]

108. Friedman, N.; Gantz, J.; Finkelstein, Y. An (Un)Fortune Cookie. Pediatr. Emerg. Care; 2017; 33, pp. 811-814. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1097/PEC.0000000000001336] [PubMed: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29194220]

109. Charlebois, S.; Somogyi, S.; Sterling, B. Cannabis-infused food and Canadian consumers’ willingness to consider ‘recreational’ cannabis as a food ingredient. Trends Food Sci. Technol.; 2018; 74, pp. 112-118. [DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2018.02.009]

110. McCárthaigh, S. Six Children Reported to Dublin Hospital with Accidental Cannabis Poisoning Earlier This Year. Available online: https://www.thejournal.ie/edible-cannabis-children-dublin-5553817-Sep2021/?utm_source=shortlink (accessed on 2 September 2022).

111. LaMotte, S. The Bags Look Like Well-Known Chips or Candies, but What’s Inside Could Harm Children. Available online: https://edition.cnn.com/2022/04/19/health/copycat-edibles-wellness/index.html (accessed on 1 September 2022).