1. Introduction
China is one of the countries in the world with widely sandy land and serious desertification [1]. In 1994, China carried out the first national survey on desertification [2] and simultaneously set up a monitoring system with a five-year cycle to identify dynamic changes in sandy land [3]. According to the fifth monitoring results in 2014, the national sandy land area is 1,721,200 and accounts for 17.93% of the total national land area [4]. The treatment of sandy land is a major engineering measure to protect and restore ecosystems [5].
The earliest research on sandy land management can be traced back to the 1930s and 1940s [6]. In 1941, experimental areas for soil and water conservation were established in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, and Tianshui, Gansu Province. The establishment of these areas has promoted a series of research works for sand management [7]. The period from 1949 to 1977 became the preliminary exploration level of sand-management work. After the established order of the sand-management crew of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in 1955, a large-scale desolate-tract research study began that consisted of research on the sandy state of pasture and farmland affairs. In reaction to the issues of wind, soil erosion, and other sand issues, the Three-North Shelterbelt undertaking was released in 1978 and sand-manipulation paintings were produced from 1978 through 2000 [8]. From 2001 to 2012, with the implementation of sand-control projects, both desertification and sandy land areas in China were reduced, but the overall sandy spreading trend remained unchanged [9]. From 2012 to the present, China’s work to combat desertification and sandy areas has been comprehensively promoted, and the policy system for desertification control has been improved. The exact development and effects have been envisioned with the creation of sand-manipulation tasks, which include the Three-Norths Protection Forest Project [10], the new round of “returning farmland to forest and grass” project, the Beijing–Tianjin wind and sand source control, and the pilot project of forbidden reserves of desertified land [11]. At the same time, new progress has been achieved through the implementation of desertification manipulate paintings and worldwide cooperation [12]. For example, the cooperation between the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the University of Florence in Italy has made important breakthroughs in using cyanobacteria to control desertification [13].
China has carried out several sand-restoration projects, with a wealth of empirical case studies. Classification from the technical level, there are vegetation restoration technologies including the fenced enclosure, forage transplanting, grafting improvement, flight-sowing, and sand shrub grassland planting etc. [14]. And sand fixation technologies such as grass grid sand barriers, high vertical sand barriers, construction of sand prevention and farmland protection forest belt [15]. As well as biological crust technology and plant fiber adhesive technology [16] aimed at restoring soil function. China has made large research achievements in sandy land ecological restoration by using these sandy land restoration technologies.
Although China has made achievements in the study of sandy land governance, most of the existing results have regional limitations and lack systematic analysis on the national level. The collection and classification of sandy land management technology will help to formulate a reasonable system and therefore boost the recuperation of sandy land in China [17]. Based on the CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) and WOS (Web of Science) databases, this paper analyzes the management technologies involved in research papers about sand management to provide scientific guidance and technical support for future sand management in China. It is worth mentioning that the sandy land mentioned in this study specifically refers to land that is covered with sand and has essentially no vegetation on its surface, which is mostly distributed in humid, semi-humid, and semi-arid regions, excluding beaches in water systems [18].
2. Methods
2.1. Data Sources and Analysis Methods
WOS and CNKI are the most widely used English and Chinese literature retrieval platforms, respectively. Based on the keywords “sand”, “restoration”, “technology”, and “China”, we used the WOS and CNKI databases to analyze the development of sand-restoration technology and research hotspots in China from Chinese literature and English literature, respectively. The search was conducted in both databases for the period 1990–2021 (cutoff date 31 December 2021). For the retrieved literature, we have counted the number of published papers in units of 10 years. After counting the keywords, we drew a cloud map based on keywords with a frequency greater than 10, in which we used different font sizes to differentiate the frequency of occurrence. The high-frequency keywords were also extracted using the Bibliometrix to obtain the research themes.
The retrieved literature with definite test areas and definite sand-restoration techniques was further screened. A total of 154 papers, 227 research cases, and 439 restoration records were identified, and the trends were counted in terms of sand-restoration principles and restoration targets. As the number of publications and technologies collected during the 12 years between 1990–2001 was relatively small, this period was used as the first stage. After 2002, a time-series change analysis was carried out over 5 years.
2.2. Results
2.2.1. Research Hotspots
As evident from Figure 1, a total of 37 high-frequency keywords were extracted from the papers published from 1990 to 2021, the top 3 high-frequency keywords being “sandy land” (117 times), “restoration” (71 times), and “vegetation restoration” (68 times). Other terms that appear more frequently include “technique”, “sand”, “maowusu sandy land”, “governance model” and “sandy land control”.
A cluster visualization of high-frequency keywords was performed using Bibliometrix to understand the research themes in a more comprehensive manner (Table 1). As can be seen in Table 1, seven higher-order themes emerged: sandy land area, techniques, restoration, evaluation and model, ecological benefits, wind and sand hazards, and policy. Study areas of interest for the sandy land area section include Maowusu Sandy Land, Horqin Sandy Land, and Hunshandak Sandy Land, followed by Nenjiang Sandy Land. Hot topics of interest in the “Technique” section include vegetation restoration, sand barriers, remote sensing, and biological soil crusts. In addition, other sections with hot keywords include the following: restoration, governance model, ecological benefits, erosion, and sustainable development.
The study area was selected in Inner Mongolian and corresponded to the area with the highest number (Table 2). In addition, Heilongjiang, Shaanxi, and Gansu Provinces captured attention.
2.2.2. Trends of Published Articles
The overall number of research paper publications is on the rise, with a linear increase in the number of articles in each 10-year cycle, beginning in 1990 and experiencing a slow–fast–steady growth process. The number of publications reached two small peaks in 2000 and 2007 and then showed a fluctuating growth trend during 2010–2021 (Figure 2).
2.2.3. Technical Classification Based on Restoration Principles
Figure 3 shows that biological restoration is the most widely used means, accounting for 51%, followed by physical restoration (29%). Among the composite restoration techniques, the most frequently used technique is physical–biological, which accounts for 11% of all techniques, while there are relatively few instances specifying a combination of physical–chemical (1%) and chemical–biological (1%) techniques.
As shown in Figure 4, from 1990 to 2001, sandy land restoration primarily focused on biological aspects, especially vegetation restoration technology, followed by physical technology or physical–biological technologies. Other aspects were relatively less studied. From 2002 to 2011, research entered the stage of rapid development, vegetation restoration technology was still the mainstream direction of research, and physical technology gradually received attention and development. In the period 2012–2021, the application of physical–biological techniques such as sand-shifting-control-forest, sand barriers, and fenced enclosure still occupied a high proportion. The application of surface crust and soil improvement increased, during which process new technologies such as a sand barriers made of polymer materials and microbial chemical crust were born, and a combined physical–biological treatment model was developed, while other aspects have not significantly changed.
2.2.4. Technical Classification Based on Restoration of Objects of Concern
In the classification of the restoration targets directed by the use of the technology, the vegetation element was the natural element that received the most attention (47%), followed by the soil element (29%) and the vegetation–soil complex elements (19%) (Figure 5A). It is worth noting that some cases of restoration methods are aimed at desertification control policies and, although there is no physical object, they provide great guidance for restoration work.
Classifying the main plant types used in the restoration process, arbor (36%) was the most widely used, followed by grasses (16%) and shrubs (15%) (Figure 5B). In addition to restoration using a single plant type, composite restoration, meaning the combination of two or three different types at the same time, accounts for 33% of the total.
2.2.5. Integration of Sand-Restoration Technology Systems
As you can see from Figure 6, the combination of similar techniques yields 20 major repair types (Figure 6). Of these, windbreak vegetation fixation was the most studied and used sand ecological restoration technique in all cases (186 times), followed by sand-barrier fixation (95 times) and fenced enclosure (26 times). Other common (>10 times) sand-restoration and sand-management techniques include soil amendment, aircraft seeding, surface crusting for sand fixation, and artificial seeding. For the less frequent methods (occurring less than 5 times), such as energy-efficient power generation irrigation, rice cultivation in the sand, and fungal complex treatment, the conditions of the selected study area are more specific. Hence, the scope of use is narrower and the number of reported cases is low, but they do provide new ideas for sand-restoration research to explore.
As shown in Table 3, restoration technology can be classified according to the principles used in the restoration process, such as physical, chemical, biological, physical–chemical, physical–biological, and chemical–biological techniques. Additionally, restoration media can be classified as vegetation restoration techniques: soil restoration techniques, vegetation–soil restoration techniques, and composite area management policies according to the object of concern of the restoration medium. The main object of concern for technology is classified as Class I, the principle of technology is classified as Class II, and specific technology is classified as Class III, which can be integrated to obtain a three-level technical system for sand restoration.
3. Discussion
By summarizing the keywords appearing in the literature, we see that the keywords involving sandy land and restoration means such as vegetation restoration, sand barrier [19], wind-breaking and sand-fixing, erosion [20], and biological soil crusts indicates that improving vegetation cover and fixing sand are major concerns for sand restoration. In addition, because cyanobacteria-dominated biological soil crust technology [21] has been more widely used for sand fixation in recent years [22], this indicates that the research hotspots are more focused on sand prevention and control measures. Keywords related to ecological development such as governance model, ecological benefits, and sustainable development suggest that research has focused on the needs of society, but the overall direction of development is toward a higher level of ecological restoration [23].
An analysis of existing technologies in terms of time reveals that in the experimental build-up stage from 1990 to 1999, although the number of overall literatures is relatively small, it is gradually increasing. During this period, research on the technology of comprehensive management and rational use of sandy land has been carried out, which has accumulated valuable experience for the follow-up work. From 2000 to 2010 was a period of rapid development. During this period, due to the start of major national ecological construction projects, such as the Beijing–Tianjin Sandstorm Source Control Project, the Three-North Shelter Forest Project, the forbidden reserves of desertified land, and related projects implemented by local governments [24], the number of related literature publications increased explosively. According to statistics from 1999 to 2009, the total area of desertified land in the project area decreased by [25]. From 2001 to 2010, the total amount of soil wind erosion in the project area decreased from to , which is a reduction of 29%. The forest coverage in the project area reached 15.01%. After 2010, we entered a new development period, which focused on the research of new governance technologies, the total number of publications declined slightly compared with the previous period but increased steadily. Through the further analysis of the author’s country, authors from 37 countries are represented in English literature on the restoration of sandy lands, with China topping the list with 137 articles, accounting for 60.62 percent of the total. Other countries in the top 10 are the United States (21.24%), Spain (8.41%), Canada (6.64%), Italy (6.64%), India (5.31%), Australia (4.87%), Russia (4.87%), France (4.42%), and the United Kingdom (3.98%), which indicates to some extent that sand-management research has received more attention worldwide [26].
From the analysis of the restoration principles and the target audience, it can be seen that biological restoration is the most widely and frequently used technology [27]. This is because biological principles were used to increase vegetation cover to promote the recovery and reconstruction of sandy ecosystems [28]. Together, with measures such as fencing and sealing [29], grazing and reclamation bans meant to restore natural vegetation and bring the ecosystem back to a relatively stable state, are the current mainstream restoration methods [30]. The most commonly used tree species are arbors, such as Pinus sylvestris [31], Populus simonii Carrière, Ulmus laevis, and Haloxylon ammodendron; shrubs, such as Caragana microphylla Lam. [32], Caragana korshinskii Kom., Caryopteris mongholica Bunge, and Hedysarum scoparium; and grasses, such as Medicago sativa Linn [33], Astragalus laxmannii Jacq., and Bromus japonicus [34]. In addition to the cultivation of single sand-fixing plants, the compound management model of the arbor, shrub, and grasses has gradually gained attention in recent years [35] and has given rise to integrated management techniques such as the “small bioeconomic circle” model in sandy areas [36], the high-yield cultivation technique of water and fertilizer coupling for sorghum [25], and the management model of the woods—fruit trees—herbs—miscellaneous grains [37]. Meanwhile, analysis of the techniques used in each study area revealed regional characteristics in the techniques. Taking three kinds of technologies with a high frequency of use as an example. Sand-barrier technology is mainly applied in Inner Mongolia (75 times) and Ningxia (11 times), which have a climate characteristic of low and uneven precipitation and strong winds. The proportion of sand-barrier technology used in these two areas is up to 90% because it can better adapted to dry climates and is effective in fixing shifting sand [38]. Fence enclosure technology is mainly used in northern areas such as Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang, and Liaoning because the enclosure is mainly used to eliminate the impact of grazing on the ecological restoration of sandy land [39], while animal husbandry is developed in northern areas. Sand-fixing technology of windbreak vegetation has been studied and used in all regions. The technology needs to screen suitable tree species according to different climate characteristics to build shelter belts. Inner Mongolia has the highest frequency of use (107 times), followed by Shaanxi (34 times).
With the continuous progress of technology, the composite governance mode has gradually received attention [40]. Due to the differences in the diversity of ecosystems, single-management techniques may fail to achieve maximum effectiveness in this context [41]. Therefore, the governance model should be selected according to local conditions, and a variety of measures should be applied comprehensively to develop efficient and stable governance projects [42]. The process of sand restoration also places increasing emphasis on the synergistic development of ecological restoration and socioeconomics [43]. On the one hand, the restored and reconstructed vegetation is conserved to promote the development of stable and highly productive plant communities. On the other hand, the land in the restored area and the surrounding areas are used for integrated agriculture, forestry, pastoralism, and grasses to promote local economic development, thus driving the efficient operation of the natural–economic–social complex system [44].
Based on the integrated analysis of technologies over the past 30 years, some new models of sand control have been developed through continuous exploration in recent years, such as the Ecological Photovoltaic Power Station [45], which is characterized by combining the development of photovoltaics with desert management and water-saving agriculture. In the periphery of the power station, a straw checkerboard sand barrier and sand-fixing forest are used to form a shelterbelt system, water-saving drip irrigation facilities are installed under photovoltaic panels, and green cash crops are planted to achieve win–win economic and ecological benefits [46]. The concept of “algae-grass-shrub-arbor” [47] has been actively developed to address the threat of climate change and land desertification. In conclusion, this paper counts the Chinese and English literature in the past 30 years, obtains the quantity of articles and quantity characteristics in different periods, and summarizes the research hotspot of sand-restoration technology. Meanwhile, this study sorts through the sand-restoration techniques, obtained a systematic classification based on restoration objects and restoration principles.
Based on the above analysis of the development status of sand management technology, this paper puts forward the following suggestions. First, sand restoration techniques should be reasonably applied. The restoration of degraded sandy areas should be based on vegetation restoration while relevant techniques from other fields should also be applied scientifically and reasonably. Second, the restoration of the soil components of degraded sandy ecosystems should be strengthened [48]. As the ecological restoration of soil takes a relatively long time, attention can be paid to the establishment of microbial populations in the soil in the future to accelerate the directional cultivation of soil [49]. At the same time, scientific and efficient restoration techniques should be selected according to local conditions, the spatial distribution of sandy areas in China should be clarified, and the spatial and temporal processes and evolution patterns of sandy ecosystem degradation should be grasped to develop suitable ecological management techniques [50]. Finally, regulation and control at the national level should be strengthened. Policy support should be vigorously provided to establish an effective early warning mechanism for sandy area degradation to prevent problems before they occur. In the restoration of degraded sandy areas, the sustainable development of sandy areas must be the goal, and the overall restoration of aboveground vegetation and underground soil ecosystems must be accounted for [51]. In the current context of big data, the application of remote sensing and other technologies can be increased to monitor and evaluate the effect of sand restoration on a regional scale [52].
4. Conclusions
At present, sandy land management has received increasing attention. From 1990 to 2021, the overall trend shows a steady increase year by year. Sandy land restoration technology can be categorized into three types: engineering sand-fixation technology (physical sand-fixation technology), soil-improvement technology (chemical sand-fixation technology), and vegetation technology. The research emphasis of sandy land governance mainly involves land degradation, soil erosion, wind erosion, and other fields. Researchers mainly consider the causes, technical feasibility evaluation, and technical efficiency of sandy land. In recent years, techniques such as integrated arbor, shrub, grass, and algae management and biological crust sand consolidation [53] have received much attention. Adopting a multidisciplinary approach to study sand ecosystem restoration, feedback and impact assessment are important directions for future research. In future studies, the work of sandy land governance must be adapted to local conditions, and comprehensive prevention and control measures should be taken on the premise of respecting natural laws [54]. At the same time, we should actively explore a win–win path for ecological protection and restoration in sandy areas by developing ecological sand industries to improve economic development and the livelihoods of people.
Conceptualization, Q.Z. and S.G.; methodology, S.G. and Q.Z.; software, S.G.; validation, S.G., J.W. and L.M.; formal analysis, S.G.; investigation, S.G.; resources, S.G.; data curation, S.G., J.W. and L.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.G.; writing—review and editing, Q.Z. and X.G.; visualization, S.G.; supervision, Q.Z.; project administration, Q.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
This research was supported by the Major Program of Inner Mongolia (grant 2021ZD0008, 2019ZD007). We would like to thank Qing Zhang (Inner Mongolia University, China) for helpful discussions on topics related to this work and strong backing.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 1. Cloud map of keywords in the sand-restoration technology research literature. The font with a large size represented the keywords that appeared at a high frequency.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Number of papers published on sandy land restoration from 1990 to 2021. The dotted line represents the growth trend of the number of published papers from 1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2009, 2010 to 2021.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Classification of sand-restoration technology based on restoration principles.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Interannual variation in the technical principles of sand restoration on a ten-year cycle.
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Classification of sand-remediation techniques based on remediation objects and classification of plant types used for remediation. (A) is the classification based on the restoration targets. (B) is a classification based on the type of plant used for restoration.
Hot keywords in the field of sand restoration.
| Research Themes | Keywords | Total Frequency Number |
|---|---|---|
| Sandy land (or desertification) area | sandy land *, sand *, maowusu sandy land *, horqin sandy land *, shifting sandy land *, hunshandak sandy land *, Inner Mongolia *, nenjiang sandy land *, roads, desertification *, yanchi county, duolun County, China, semi-arid zone, ningxia, hulunbuir sandy land, agro-pastoral zones | 506 |
| Technique | vegetation restoration *, technique *, sand barrier *, remote sensing *, biological soil crusts *, countermeasures, wind-breaking and sand-fixing, sylvestris pine, water and soil conservation, aerial seeding, shelter forest, afforestation, cyanobacteria | 307 |
| Restoration (or Management) | restoration *, sandy land control *, ecological restoration, sand control, integrated management, management model, countermeasures, model, management, ecological management, prevention and control, sanding control, management development | 295 |
| Evaluation and model | governance model *, evaluation *, indicator system, dynamic changes, ecological governance | 101 |
| Ecological benefits | ecological benefits *, benefits *, ecological, development, biodiversity | 40 |
| Wind and sand hazards | erosion *, wind erosion *, wind erosion hazards, wind erosion pits, soil erosion | 38 |
| Policy | sustainable development *, desert industry *, forestry ecological construction | 26 |
* Represents keyword with a frequency of more than 10.
Statistics of the province of the study area in journal articles on sandy land restoration.
| Provinces | Frequency | Provinces | Frequency |
|---|---|---|---|
| Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region | 61 | Qinghai Autonomous Region | 5 |
| Heilongjiang | 21 | Tibet Autonomous Region | 5 |
| Shaanxi Province | 14 | Beijing | 4 |
| Gansu Province | 9 | Shandong Province | 3 |
| Ningxia Autonomous Region | 9 | Jiangxi Province | 2 |
| Liaoning Province | 7 | Guangdong Province | 1 |
| Sichuan Province | 6 | Jilin Province | 1 |
| Hebei Province | 5 | Shanxi Province | 1 |
Integrated system table of the three-level technology of sandy land restoration.
| Class I | Class II | Class III |
|---|---|---|
| Vegetation | physical | Supplementary planting and afforestation belt, fence enclosure, aerial sowing technology, stubble rejuvenation technology to ridge, no-tillage, early film mulching, minimally invasive airflow planting technology |
| biological | Planting grass-planting sand-fixation vegetation technology, building timber forest and economic forest for the protective forest, arbor-shrub-grass composite sand-fixation technology, arbor-shrub-grass-algae composite management mode, grassland improvement, Salix babylonica cutting technology, plant sand barrier, and ecological blanket covering vegetation restoration technology | |
| chemical–biological | Nutrition bag afforestation technology and sand grassland seed bank activation technology | |
| physical–biological | High vertical sand barrier afforestation technology, composite ecological blanket sand-fixation technology, desert rice planting technology, and net grass-planting technology | |
| Vegetation—soil | physical | Fence enclosure, semifixed sprinkler irrigation, district ecological restoration, energy-saving power generation irrigation technology |
| biological | Improved saline-alkali land afforestation, flood diversion, and silt irrigation improved grassland, arbor, shrub, and grass composite sand-fixation technology, windbreak and sand-fixation forest belt, grass grid sand barrier, small biological economic circle, and revetment forest | |
| physical–biological | Planting bag sand-fixation planting technology, wind-proof and sand-fixation belt of shrubs, direct seeding afforestation in the sand barrier, hidden grass square sand barrier, a wind-proof and sand-fixation forest of catalpa shrub in two rows and one belt, and closed aerial seeding technology | |
| Soil | physical | Reduce tillage times and flat sowing area, surface film technology, plastic sand barrier, straw checkerboard sand barrier (SCB) sand-fixation technology, belt sand barrier, mechanical sand barrier, wheat straw sand barrier, grid sand control net sand-fixation belt, fence sand barrier belt |
| chemical | Chemical sand-fixing agent, application of soil-improvement and moisturizing agent, chemical sand-fixing agent, chemical improved sand-fertilizer technology, sodium lignosulfonate extraction solvent infiltration and water retention technology, arsenic sandstone compound soil-improvement technology, chemical crust sand-fixing technology in sandy land, construction of organic fertilizer | |
| biological | Plant living sand barrier, grass square sand barrier, fungus compound treatment mode, artificial biological crust sand-fixation technology, cyanobacterial crust sand-fixation technology | |
| physical–biological | Double-row movable vertical sand barrier technology, biological materials and fixation technology, high vertical sand barrier, mechanical sand barrier + biological sand barrier comprehensive treatment mode, Salix gordejevii + PE gauze composite sand barrier, artificial sowing + reed curtain laying, “sand barrier + vegetation restoration” composite technology | |
| chemical–biological | Sand-Fixation Technology of Microsphingomonas Sheath Combined with Polymeric Silicate and Sand-Fixation Technology of Biological Crust in Sandy Land | |
| physical–chemical | Sand-fixing technology of polymer absorbent material, biodegradable fiber PLA sand barrier, polymer DHPE geocell | |
| Composite regional governance | Strengthen legal constraints, and forest protection according to law; strengthen investment in sand control projects; strengthen government behavior, improve the construction of laws and regulations, provide preferential policies; increase capital investment in science and technology; establish and improve modern grassland animal husbandry efficient management technology; create sand area classification governance; seal pipes simultaneously; create grassland rotation policy; combine ecological environment management and ecological industry construction; institute farmland improvement standardization project; publish rotation management policy; enforce fencing and grazing prohibition measures |
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; Wu, Jiaru 1 ; Le, Ma 1 ; Gong, Xiaoqian 1 ; Zhang, Qing 2
1 School of Ecology and Environment, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China
2 School of Ecology and Environment, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot 010021, China; Grassland Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hohhot 010021, China