1. Introduction
As stated by the German philosopher Spengler, “All the great culture of human beings comes from the cities”. Cities have a role in human production and life, and they have been developing with the advancement of human civilization. However, the contradiction between the waste generated by human activities and the city’s carrying capacity has also become increasingly prominent with the continuous industrialization and urbanization, as well as the continuous expansion of the city scale. Easing the pressure caused by tremendous amounts of waste on the environment has been the main challenge in urban governance as it has adversely affected national governance and social development.
Urban waste management has become a global problem [1]. With the increasing urban construction, major cities worldwide have been facing the problem of waste crowding out of space and resources. Undoubtedly, waste recycling is the ideal solution to this problem. The concept of zero waste (ZW) originated from Paul Palmer’s waste management company founded in 1973 [2]. In 2004, the Zero Waste International Alliance adopted the first internationally recognized definition of ZW, that is, the responsible production, consumption, and recycling of products, packaging, and materials to protect all resources. Currently, Washington, Tokyo, Victoria, and Adelaide have committed to becoming the global leaders in zero-waste city (ZWC) construction by developing the ZW development strategy [3]. The international community has not yet reached a consensus on the ZWC concept. However, many scholars have explored it from different perspectives. Zaman and Lehmann (2011) conceptualized the ZWCs, implying the 100% recovery and recycling of urban waste. The authors proposed the five principles for realizing ZWCs [4]. Some scholars (2017) explored the construction priorities of ZWCs and conducted a literature review to determine their pros and cons [3]. Furthermore, research in the following areas has been conducted: the core principles and critical drivers of ZWCs [5,6], implementation strategy and policy framework [7], case studies of relevant cities [4,8,9,10,11,12,13,14], and performance evaluation methods [6,15].
China, world’s largest generator of municipal solid waste, has positively constructed ZWCs. The General Office of the State Council of China issued the Work Plan of the ZWC Pilot Program on 29 December 2018, which initiated the construction process of ZWCs in China. Notably, the international concept of ZW advocates for redesigning the life of products, pursuing that all products can be reused, with the goal of zero landfill, zero incineration, and zero disposal. China’s ZWC construction aims to minimize the production of solid waste in the city, maximize resource utilization, and ensure safe disposal of waste. However, ZW is not an absolute indicator [16]. While studying China’s ZWC, Chinese scholars have comprehensively explored the construction mode and governance mode [17,18], application of technology [19,20,21], formulation of laws [22,23], and publicity of ideas [24]. Unlike developed countries, China has not yet established a mature solid waste management system [25]. Thus, the government’s planning needs to be more comprehensive, covering a broader range and formulating more detailed implementation plans during China’s ZWC construction [26]. Therefore, compared with the mode of joint governance between government and society in developed countries, ZWC construction in China needs more comprehensive leadership. After establishing feasible plans, the government constantly mobilizes all social forces to construct ZWCs through policy guidance and concept publicity. Furthermore, the government should obtain corresponding work results to consolidate society’s confidence, gradually transitioning to “government + society” co-governance. China’s ZWC construction path is more meaningful for developing countries.
Since 2018, China’s ZWC construction plan has been executed for nearly four years, and some achievements and experiences have been widely recognized. The pilot cities and regions have initially established the prototype of ZWCs [27]. After the pilot’s success, expanding the pilot’s scope and promoting the successful experience have been the main tasks. The construction mode of ZWCs has been facing transformation requirements with the different development stages. As the construction leader, the government should reposition itself in the new development trend to effectively promote the construction work. However, previous studies on China’s ZWCs have mainly focused on summarizing and reflecting on the results of the first phase of practice, ignoring the development requirements of city cluster construction [28,29,30,31]. Specifically, these studies focused on the analysis of specific industries and measures and lacked a comprehensive consideration of regional development. The present study attempts to provide a reference for this purpose.
Case studies are a common method for China’s ZWC research [32,33,34,35,36,37]. This study draws on the “government–market–society” framework of analysis [38]. Using the system of policy collection and the case study method, this study attempts to address the following questions by summarizing the experiences of waste-free cities in China and analyzing the specific practices of Shenzhen and the Pearl River Delta City Cluster (PRDCC): Is the shift from ZWCs to ZWCCs consistent with the reality of ZWC development? What are the implications for future work? Accordingly, this study discusses the problems in the transition stage of ZWC construction combined with the specific practice of the PRDCC. Furthermore, the study analyzes the evolution of the role of the government in the transformation process of the zero-waste urban governance mode.
2. Transformation of ZWC Construction Mode
2.1. Achievements and Experiences of ZWC Construction
The General Office of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of the People’s Republic of China issued the ZWC Pilot Implementation Plan Preparation Guide and the Index System of ZWC Construction (Trial) [39] on 8 May 2019. Accordingly, 16 cities and regions were screened as the pilot areas for ZWC construction. Table 1 presents the completed indicators in the work summary report of each city in 2021. It indicates that the 16 pilot cities and regions have basically completed the indicators in the previous plan and formed the unique experience mode of each city.
In general, each pilot project has achieved the goals outlined in the previous implementation plan and established the prototype of the ZWC. Moreover, 562 solid waste utilization and disposal projects were arranged nationwide by the end of 2020, and 422 of these tasks have been completed. Furthermore, 956 tasks are related to the construction of technology, market, and supervision systems, of which 850 tasks have been completed. In addition, 246 tasks are in progress [40]. As shown in Table 2, the ZWC construction in the first stage mainly focuses on classification, treatment, and mechanism exploration. This stage includes the classification and treatment of solid waste, management of the process from solid waste production to recycling and disposal, and establishment of a governance mechanism and supervision system. The governance mode of each city has relatively solid local characteristics.
2.2. Features of Zero-Waste City Cluster Construction
By the end of April 2022, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment announced the second batch of the ZWC construction list after completing the first batch of pilot projects [41]. Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of selected cities and regions. The number of the first batch of pilot projects increased significantly. The second batch of selected cities and regions has three remarkable characteristics. First, all these cities are almost in the provinces of mainland China, and the construction of ZWCs indicates an apparent promotion trend. Second, some of these pilot cities have formed interconnected city clusters, such as Pearl River Delta, Yangtze River Delta, Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei, and Sichuan–Chongqing city clusters. The new ZWCC revolves around the first batch of pilot cities, reflecting a noticeable “from point to surface” trend. Third, the ZWCCs are located mostly in the regions with a large population and muscular economic strength, in line with the national and regional development strategy. This is because the cities’ economic level is closely related to environmental governance. Furthermore, the city governments that receive policy care often have a robust leading ability to effectively promote work. In the early stage of ZWC construction, the government’s ability to assume the leading role is often the key to success.
A key feature of China’s ZWC construction is the transformation from a single city construction to the city cluster construction. From the perspective of development, the government is working mainly to achieve this goal of transformation. Practically, it is a shift to meet the practical needs of a ZWC. In the first phase, the project has already encountered some difficulties. For example, difficulties in promoting the front-end sorting of waste, and legal and public opinion are barriers in the intercity transfer of waste. Accordingly, in the new stage, local governments would face new challenges.
The first challenge is the change of role. In the first stage, the government needs to deal with only the affairs of the city; it has good adaptability and control ability, and the effectiveness of the work often depends only on a positive attitude. However, constructing a city cluster involves the coordination between multiple governments at the same level and the interaction among the governments at multiple levels. It involves a series of conflicts, such as law, power, and rights. Furthermore, a related communication and coordination mechanism needs to be re-established. The second challenge is the improvement of ability. The increased affairs, intensification of conflicts, and interaction between multiple subjects put higher requirements on the government’s governance ability. The government should upgrade its administrative ability and governance mode to adapt to its new environment and trends. The last challenge is the change in ideas. In the first stage, the society has no concept and cognition of ZWCs and can only rely on the government for promotion, leading to path dependence on government governance thinking. This implies that only the leading person needs the government, and the other subjects are the helpers around the government. According to the successful international experience, the rise in social forces and gradual seizing of the initiative are the key to establishing a ZW society. The ultimate value goal of the ZWC construction should be establishing a ZW society. Therefore, the government should not adhere to only “dominant” thinking but learn to change from “dominant” to “cooperative” in the new development stage.
Understanding the challenges and making changes accordingly to reposition the government under new trends are crucial. Therefore, this study selects the PRDCC as the object of investigation. On the one hand, this region includes Shenzhen—a highlight city of the first batch of pilot cities. On the other hand, the PRDCC is the most closely connected and economically active region in China. It is also the most promising region in the second pilot batch.
3. Shenzhen’s Experience and the Shortcomings of Regional Development
3.1. Shenzhen’s Successful Experience
Shenzhen has achieved great results in ZWC construction. Considering the recycling and processing of general industrial solid waste as an example, after 2018, the processing capacity of general industrial solid waste in Shenzhen steadily increased (Figure 2). By contrast, before the implementation of the ZWC plan, the level of solid waste recycling in Shenzhen was unstable.
Furthermore, in the ZWC construction process, Shenzhen has created new governance modes according to the classification of different wastes, as depicted in Figure 3. The characteristics of Shenzhen’s governance thinking can be summarized by organizing these specific measures.
3.1.1. Promote Practice through Legislation
Establishment of a legal framework is the foundation of urban governance. Shenzhen has fully utilized the legislative power of the Special Economic Zone, compiled local regulations, and issued 77 policy documents. Table 3 lists some distinctive regulatory documents. Establishing these systems provides the legal basis and action rules for the subsequent construction of ZWCs.
In addition, Shenzhen has established a series of industry standards and evaluation indicators. For instance, Shenzhen has issued five evaluation rules, four evaluation standards, and one ecological industrial park construction standard for “zero-waste city cells”. Moreover, it has added 41 local standards for solid waste treatment [42]. It has also improved the evaluation standards of “zero-waste city cells”. Shenzhen, for the first time, has established a system to identify construction waste recycling products and ensure market application of technical specification. The technical specification encompasses the development of the garbage classification technology system, as well as the refinement of hazardous waste, general industrial solid waste, medical waste, and other types of waste collection, storage, disposal methods, and other standardized management requirements. It comprehensively promotes solid waste collection, storage, transportation, utilization, disposal, and supervision.
Officially, China’s domestic waste classification work started in 2018, and as one of the early pilot cities, Shenzhen has established a set of domestic waste classification models through legislation. First, Shenzhen issued the Regulations on the Management of Domestic Waste Classification in Shenzhen and the Guidelines on the Sorting and Putting of Household Domestic Waste, establishing a system of waste classification management. Second, Shenzhen enforced the fine classification management of domestic waste, promoted the waste classification model in 3508 property districts in the city, and established a corresponding supervision model. Third, Shenzhen emphasizes the classification of domestic waste collection and transportation, with different categories of waste being entrusted to different collection and treatment enterprises, thereby achieving special transfer, ensuring separate treatment for different waste, and eliminating the confusion regarding the nature of domestic waste.
3.1.2. Implement Centralized Park Governance
The “NIMBY effect” is a public concern in urban environmental governance. Urban residents oppose the construction of waste treatment facilities in their communities, making it difficult to construct and operate solid waste treatment facilities in many cities. In the ZWC construction process in China, some pilot cities have integrated scattered waste treatment facilities by exploring the establishment of centralized parks, such as solid waste treatment recycling economy industrial parks and ecological parks. These parks can coordinate and build comprehensive treatment mechanisms for domestic waste, general industrial solid waste, hazardous waste, and other types of waste, thereby avoiding social conflicts. Moreover, the centralized park adopts high-standard building specifications. It also adopts a series of advanced technology, design, and specific measures to integrate the supporting facilities of the industrial park with residents’ life, thereby weakening conflicts between the two.
Shenzhen is a typical example of this governance mode. In the past three years, Shenzhen has built five energy and ecological parks: Baoan, Longgang, Nanshan, Pinghu, and Yantian. The parks have a domestic waste incineration capacity of 18,000–20,000 tons per day, as well as full primary domestic waste incineration and zero landfill. Furthermore, it has helped achieve 100% harmless disposal of domestic waste. In terms of general industrial solid waste treatment, Shenzhen has adopted a centralized mode of collection, transportation, and disposal. Hongfa High-tech Industrial Park and Hanguang Science and Technology Park are pilot parks of the centralized solid waste management mode. This park management mode has replaced the traditional enterprise management mode. Shenzhen has introduced the world’s strictest emission control standards for air pollutants generated from household waste incineration and power generation. Moreover, it has designed and constructed incineration plants according to the appearance of star-rated hotels. In addition, Shenzhen has provided ecological compensation to surrounding communities according to the amount of incineration disposal; ensured heat and electricity connection for low-cost energy; helped surrounding communities open environmental protection brick production plants with slag; invested in the construction of public facilities such as hiking trails, natatoriums, and science exhibition halls to give back to the community residents. This innovative mode of enterprise community construction effectively solves the NIMBY problem pertaining to new projects and realizes the win–win development of enterprises and communities.
3.1.3. Focus on Regional Coordination and Linkage
Currently, China’s overall solid waste treatment capacity is insufficient, and a structural gap exists in the treatment capacity of specific types of solid waste. The production types and total amount of solid waste are not consistent with their disposal capacity in provinces, autonomous regions, and municipalities directly under the central government. In some administrative regions, the capacity for the treatment of some categories of solid waste is good but that for the treatment of other categories is inadequate [43]. Accordingly, coordinated regional governance can help resolve the regional imbalance between supply and demand, as well as the structural shortcomings of the comprehensive utilization and harmless treatment capacity of solid waste. Furthermore, it can help curb the environmental pollution incidents of illegal transfer and dumping of solid waste across regions.
The price of solid waste disposal is an important factor affecting the efficiency of waste disposal and the division of labor and cooperation among cities in the region [44]. With the construction of Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area, Shenzhen has established the mode of regional coordinated disposal of construction waste and the mode of “full coverage, full collection, and full treatment” of medical waste, thereby resulting in the intercity sharing of hazardous waste disposal facilities. Accordingly, the disposal price of incineration hazardous waste was reduced to 3000–4500 yuan/ton, the disposal price of heavy metal sludge was reduced to 1300–1800 yuan/ton, and the disposal price was decreased by more than 50% on a yearly basis, which considerably reduced enterprises’ production cost. This facilitates the better participation of small cities in the region in the solid waste disposal process. In addition, Shenzhen has organized preparations for ecological and environmental protection cooperation in the Shenzhen–Dongguan–Huizhou Economic Circle (3 + 2). Furthermore, it has promoted local governments to fully utilize their resource advantages and improve their complementary solid waste disposal capabilities.
3.1.4. Focus on the Application of Technology
ZWCs involve a large amount of urban solid waste of many types, unclear flow direction, and disorderly supervision, which is a common concern in urban solid waste management. The use of information and digital technology, establishment of the intelligent information management platform, and the whole-cycle, intelligent, closed-loop overall management of urban solid waste can effectively enhance the level and efficiency of the delicate management of urban solid waste [45].
On the regulatory front, Shenzhen has invested 158 million yuan in building an intelligent environmental protection supervision platform. It has also completed the full coverage of GPS + video and the whole-process intelligent monitoring system of various waste treatment processes. Moreover, Shenzhen has developed the solid waste remote video law enforcement system. Accordingly, through intelligent electronic equipment and mobile phone video synchronization, law enforcement personnel can evaluate an enterprise’s solid waste management parameter and waste storage as well as identify problems through real-time rectification, thus forming a whole-chain, closed-loop law enforcement regulation. This approach has considerably enhanced the efficiency of law enforcement and supervision, reduced the demand for law enforcement personnel by 80%, and increased the proportion of sampling inspection of enterprises, all of which have effectively improved the standardized management level of enterprises.
From the management perspective, Shenzhen has conducted the declaration and registration of general industrial solid waste and electronic joint form management. Moreover, 7471 enterprises have completed the declaration and registration of solid waste on the Guangdong Province management platform. Shenzhen has developed an intelligent supervision system for construction waste, which has been applied in construction, municipal, transportation, water, garden, and other projects. It covers 2375 construction sites, 14,468 mud-head vehicles, and 383 consumption places, generating more than 30,000 copies per day. This realizes the real-time monitoring and electronic list management of the process of “construction waste discharge, transportation, and disposal”, with the average signing rate of the electronic list sheet being more than 95%.
3.1.5. Emphasize the Power of Publicity
The establishment of ZW culture is the basis of ZW society. The Shenzhen municipal government has taken many scientific and practical measures to publicize the consciousness of ZW [46].
On the infrastructure front, on average, each of the 11 administrative districts in Shenzhen has created at least one high-quality and distinctive science education base for waste classification, built two demonstration education bases for comprehensive utilization of construction waste, and two demonstration education bases for sludge utilization and disposal. Moreover, they have established 17 nature schools and 25 environmental education bases, contributing to 1.2 million public visits per year.
Shenzhen has widely used various media channels for publicizing, publishing about 546 ZWC reports on various media, which have more than 2 million views. ZWC construction theme posters and videos were put on the advertising space screens of various channels, and a series of tour activities of the ZWC demonstration site creation were held, attracting more than 4 million people.
Finally, the government has implemented a “dandelion” public education plan for garbage classification, set up more than 830 volunteer lecturers to popularize knowledge of garbage classification, and conducted more than 40,000 guidance activities for garbage classification, directly affecting more than 2.62 million people. The government has compiled knowledge books on garbage classification in middle schools, primary schools, and kindergartens. Accordingly, 2635 schools have included the topic in their moral education curriculum bibliography, with more than 2.5 million teachers and students participating in education and learning.
3.1.6. Shortcomings of the Shenzhen Model
In the first phase of work, Shenzhen exhibited some shortcomings.
First, the front-end sorting and treatment of waste were not perfect. Developed countries generally regard reduction and resource utilization as the priority in urban waste management and consider the development of circular economy as the main path to achieve “zero waste” in cities [47,48]. However, China’s ZWC construction is more concerned with the treatment and disposal of various types of solid waste after their generation, with a preference for the back-end treatment of solid waste. Due to the current management system and the division of responsibilities, Shenzhen’s work focuses mainly on environmental supervision, pollution control, and risk prevention. This has led to a lack of integrated capacity for the source reduction and resource management of solid waste.
Second, a previous analysis showed that the Shenzhen government plays the role of leader and controller in the construction process of ZWCs. This is reflected in the current work projects and unofficial subjects such as enterprises, social organizations, and individuals lacking consciousness and autonomy. Many new development modes and projects are still being initiated and promoted by the city government, rather than spontaneously being formed by the people. However, this government-led mode, which highly depends on the ability and efficiency of the government, may not attain the desired effect when faced with complex governance objects.
3.2. Difficulties in Constructing ZWCC
3.2.1. Imbalance of Development between Cities
Among the second batch of ZWC pilot cities, nine cities in the PRDCC have been selected. Table 4 presents the basic information of each city. The area has been defined as a “zero-waste pilot area” (ZWPA) [49] in the latest construction plan of Guangdong Province owing to the geographical connection of the cities in this area. The selection of the PRDCC is not arbitrary. As presented in Table 4, PRDCC’s overall economic strength, population, and urbanization level are all high in China. Moreover, its ability to explore the regional ZWC construction mode is adequately strong.
As shown in Figure 4, the ZWPA city clusters are characterized by asynchronous economic development and unbalanced solid waste treatment levels. Moreover, under favorable economic conditions, the cities do not necessarily have a good solid waste treatment capacity, which is closely related to the economic structure, division of labor, policy arrangement, and other factors in each city. Furthermore, the successful experience of Shenzhen cannot be simply replicated in building the ZWPA city clusters. The process of solid waste treatment should be arranged according to the actual situation of each city as well as the division of labor and cooperation among industrial chains in the cities. In addition, macro top-level design and overall arrangements are required to balance the interests of various subjects and adequately manage the relation between economic development and environmental governance.
3.2.2. Coordination among Multiple Subjects
The theory of pluralism suggests that the governance of our cities requires the participation of multiple forces. The transformation from city to city clusters determines the diversification and complexity of the participants. In the construction of ZWPA city clusters, coordination among the subjects will present the following problems:
First, conflicting interests of the governments: Different cities are in different stages of development and have different interests and positions. The construction of the ZWPA involves transferring and treating solid waste between cities. The local government should weigh the pros and cons of economic benefits and environmental conditions. Environmental governance is an administrative choice with a long return time, which often conflicts with the interests of the incumbent government workers. They may choose projects with higher performance evaluation, increasing the communication cost of the governments at the same level. Furthermore, a lack of information and the increase in communication costs can objectively reduce the efficiency of policy implementation; however, the provincial government can include these issues in the overall planning.
Second, social subjects lack initiative. Businesses and citizens are the main drivers of change. Enterprises have enough room for independent action. In addition, citizens have adequate cognition ability. Nevertheless, this still seems imperfect in the current PRDCC. Enterprises lack the corresponding motivation. Companies should invest numerous resources to open up the opportunity when governments have stalled, which is not in line with their business position. Therefore, turning to other projects is a more rational choice.
Furthermore, there is no sense of cognition of environmental protection among citizens. Assuming that the NIMBY effect is partly avoided in Shenzhen’s practice, the negative NIMBY effect will amplify amid the city cluster, and Shenzhen’s experience may not be applicable to it. The economic development level of each city is different, and the understanding of people and the environment also varies across different cities. Insufficient citizens’ environmental awareness can affect the construction of ZWCs and a ZW society.
3.2.3. Establishment of Inter-Regional Coordination Mechanisms
The institutional coordination between regions is the key to constructing the ZWPA, in addition to the communication between multiple subjects [50]. For instance, the coordinated solid waste disposal mechanism among cities in the region has not yet been formed, and the solid waste disposal capacity has not been planned. Furthermore, the compensation mechanism for cross-border transfer and coordinated disposal of solid waste between regions has not yet been established. The solid waste disposal facilities in cities with scarce land resources and insufficient treatment capacity are in excess. By contrast, the cities with rich land resources and great disposal potential lack adequate resources.
The support systems of relevant laws lack detailed planning, leading to the implementation of some new regulations of the Solid Waste Law. For instance, specific measures to implement the differentiated household waste charging system are lacking. Supportive measures, including a price mechanism that promotes solid waste co-processing across administrative regions, have not yet been established. Thus, the communication and coordination of solid waste treatment mechanisms between regions cannot be ensured, making an orderly sharing of resources challenging.
4. Paths of Government Role Change
Our analysis indicates that the change in the role of the government is the first step to solving the aforementioned difficulties. As a leader and the first responsible body for the construction of ZWCs, the government can adapt to the development trend, coordinate the relationship between all parties, and promote the construction of the ZWPA scientifically and efficiently only by becoming the facilitator, coordinator, supervisor, and propagandist.
4.1. Increase Efforts to Support Enterprises and Social Organizations
The difference between the two roles of government mainly depends on the change in the relationship between the government and other subjects. As a leader, the government focuses on commanding and coercive behavior toward other subjects, whereas, as a facilitator, it focuses on the cooperative relationship with other subjects. The government should support enterprises and some social organizations through policies. For instance, Foshan has completed the solid waste industry chain by introducing third-party companies to participate in transporting hazardous waste since 2020 [51]. It has reduced costs and increased the speed and efficiency of solid waste treatment. This case is an excellent example of the importance of corporate participation.
Developed countries and regions such as the European Union [52], Japan [8], and Singapore [53] have adopted flexible and diversified economic policies and market means to encourage waste producers to change their behavior and use them as a source of government fiscal revenue. However, China’s current economic policies related to solid waste management play a minimal role in guiding and regulating, and market cultivation and support are insufficient. Furthermore, the marketization degree of solid waste treatment and industrial disposal systems is low, and the problem of local monopoly is widespread. For instance, state-owned businesses, excluding private enterprises, usually undertake waste sorting, recycling, and hazardous waste treatment in pilot cities. Due to imperfect market competition, some enterprises still face problems related to monopoly pricing and a low disposal level. These problems require the government to use legislative, administrative, and other relevant actions.
As a facilitator, government should have perfect planning and arrangements to be able to effectively guide the development. Governments should further improve the top-level design, strengthen the guiding role of policies, and create a long-term operation mechanism.
In addition, the government should rationally lay out and plan the construction and development of ZWCs, accelerate the improvement of the supporting system of the Law on the Prevention and Control of Environmental Pollution by Solid Waste, improve the legislative procedures for comprehensive utilization of resources, and provide corresponding incentive mechanisms with the pocket mechanism. These measures can provide a good and orderly operating environment for society and the market.
However, the dominance of the government toward multiple social subjects is limited, rather than extreme laissez-faire. For instance, in 2002, Los Angeles reached a nonexclusive license agreement with private carriers, allowing an unlimited number of businesses to provide urban waste collection services. With the influx of uncontrolled businesses into waste collection services, scattered data prevent the government from effectively monitoring and controlling municipal waste. In the excessively fierce market competition, a nonexclusive concession enterprise may reduce waste transport efficiency because of the lack of sufficient customer density or related equipment. A report published by HF&F Consultants in 2012 revealed that the exclusive franchise system provides three advantages over the nonexclusive permit system: higher accountability possibilities, higher waste transfer efficiency, and better waste data monitoring [54]. Accordingly, the Los Angeles Department of Sanitation has divided the city into 11 waste management zones and given the exclusive proposal [55]. The aforementioned case indicates that the government should consider the efficiency factor when guiding other subjects to participate in urban construction. Combined with China’s current practice, the government should gradually transfer the dominant power and set a reasonable scope for this purpose.
4.2. Establish the Operation Mode for Benign Interaction among Multiple Subjects
Cooperation among multiple subjects is an essential guarantee for the sustainable development of ZWC construction. The multi-governance mode with the government, enterprises, the public, industry associations, social organizations, and volunteer teams as the main body is a new governance mode under the concept of sharing. The government should further pool the strength of multiple subjects and establish a win–win partnership among various subjects and a mode of “joint construction, joint governance, and sharing” with the collective participation of multiple subjects. Relying on NGOs, NPO, and other organizations to conduct relevant theme education and publicity and to practice activities enabled the public to participate, thereby creating an excellent cultural atmosphere.
In addition, in the construction process, the interests of all parties should be appropriately handled to solve problems and meet the public demand, coordinate multiple subjects, and ensure the scientific and democratic decision-making construction process.
Thus, the ZWPA should build a tripartite collaboration model with the government as the key player and under the assistance of related enterprises and the active participation of the public. The pilot area ensures the healthy operation of the tripartite cooperation model by clarifying the positioning of all parties, coordinating the division of labor and cooperation, improving the coordination mechanism, and smoothing the information-sharing mechanism. Some Chinese scholars have considered the environmental governance cooperation mode between Guangdong and Hong Kong as the equivalent multi-interaction mode [56]. The environmental governance of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area reflects the characteristic of “reduction of vertical direct intervention and expansion of multicenter horizontal cooperation” [57]. However, vertical intergovernmental relationship coordination should also be considered in constructing the ZWPA in the Pearl River Delta, in addition to the equal cooperation between the governments at the same level. Figure 5 presents the specific collaborative governance mode.
Regarding the specific coordination mechanism, we should uphold the concept of regional cooperation and innovate the multi-waste collaborative treatment mode. The government has carried out cross-regional cooperation in industrial planning, construction of treatment and disposal facilities, and environmental supervision to jointly promote low-cost and standardized treatment of waste and resource recovery by establishing regional collaborative governance and joint prevention and control mechanisms. The construction of a regional vein industrial park is essential for regional cooperation. It allows cities to process various solid wastes collaboratively and promotes facility sharing, equipment sharing, and the cascade utilization of energy, thereby ensuring coupling and collaboration among the processing units and achieving a win–win situation for economic, environmental, and social multi-layered benefits. In the past three years, the Chengdu–Chongqing twin-city economic circle has taken the lead in establishing a “white list” cooperation mechanism and joint law enforcement mechanism for the inter-provincial transfer of hazardous waste and has established a cross-field, cross-departmental, and cross-regional efficient hazardous waste management system [58]. The economic circle has realized the sharing of disposal capacity and resources, the processing, and controllable risks. In addition, Shenzhen uses information technology to build a solid waste trading platform. The platform helps break through the barriers to regional cooperation and solve problems, such as opaque price information in the solid waste market, weak bargaining power of waste-producing enterprises, and high disposal costs. Furthermore, it can also regulate the solid waste collection, transportation, and disposal trading market [23]. The aforementioned experience of coordination mechanisms can be promoted in future studies.
4.3. Strengthen the Promotion of the “Zero-Waste” Concept and the Monitoring of the Waste Disposal Process
Shenzhen’s successful experience has illustrated the significance of supervision and publicity. Accordingly, the government should continue playing the role of a good “supervisor” and “propagandist”.
The role as a “regulator” requires the government to strive toward improving its solid waste supervision and risk prevention capabilities. The government should implement the extended producer responsibility system in industries and strictly implement the “polluter pays principle”. The government can also use information technology to comprehensively supervise the solid waste treatment process and increase the punishment in the case of violation of laws to ensure that the laws and discipline are not violated by enterprises and the public.
The front-end sorting of waste is a crucial step in the waste treatment process that directly affects the efficiency of subsequent resource recovery and reuse and the subsequent waste treatment steps. It is also the weakest link in the current waste management model in China. The environmental awareness of urban residents is the decisive factor in waste separation, which requires the government to improve the publicity of environmental protection and reduce waste generation at source.
As a “propagandist”, the government should actively promote a ZW social atmosphere. It should actively promote the methods, concepts, and benefits of “zero-waste living” in communities and schools through online multimedia, television, newspapers, and other means. These measures can improve the public’s ZW awareness, actively guide teaching practice, change the lifestyles and habits of the public, and improve their attitude and determination to practice a ZW-green life.
5. Conclusions
Government departments should make efforts for the provision of municipal waste management, which is generally regarded as a public service. However, the system of urban waste management service usually comprises formal systems represented by government departments and informal activities driven by economic interests during international urban construction. This complex “public” and “private” partnership is the key to ensuring efficient urban systems [59].
This study finds that the current shift from ZWCs to ZWCCs in China is in line with the law of development. The practice of Shenzhen city and the PRDCC proves that in countries with a strong governance such as China, the government should promote the construction of ZWCs in the early stages. However, with the development of cities, the project will encounter multiple challenges in terms of law, public opinion, and operating costs. The singularity of participating subjects is the root cause of these problems. Therefore, the government must change its role and actively guide all parties to participate in urban environmental governance. The transformation of the role would be beneficial to the government. The burden will inevitably increase with the expansion of the construction scale. However, the introduction of multiple subjects can alleviate government pressure and improve the government’s administrative efficiency.
The participation of multiple actors can present new challenges in the construction of ZWCCs such as the lack of a coordination mechanism among cities, the game between government and social forces, and the distribution of interests among cities in the region. This study recommends that enterprises and social organizations be supported with institutional incentives and a benign interaction model with multiple actors, and a sound publicity and supervision model should also be established. In the future, as the construction of city clusters is improved, subsequent studies can focus on microscopic perspectives to discuss the integration and development among industries in the region.
Based on the cases of Shenzhen city and the PRDCC, this study discusses the possible difficulties and optimization path of developing ZWCs in late-developing countries. This can be applied to the future construction of ZWCs in Guangdong Province and throughout China. In addition, it can provide a valuable reference for other countries, which have not yet established a ZW society.
Conceptualization, Z.Z. and J.T.; methodology, Z.Z.; analysis, Z.Z.; investigation, J.T.; data curation, Z.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.Z.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z. and J.T.; visualization, Z.Z.; supervision, J.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
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The authors would like to thank the editors and referees for their valuable comments and suggestions to help improve this paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Trend in General Industrial Solid Waste Treatment Capacity of Shenzhen.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Comprehensive utilization rate of general industrial solid waste in the cities of the Pearl River Delta.
Completion of indicators in pilot cities (by the end of 2020).
| Pilot Cities and Regions | Predetermined Indicators | Completed Indicators | % Degree of Completion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Shenzhen | 58 | 56 | 96.6 |
| Baotou | 52 | 50 | 96.2 |
| Tongling | 46 | 43 | 93.5 |
| Weihai | 59 | 56 | 95 |
| Chongqing | 45 | 45 | 100 |
| Shaoxing | 53 | 52 | 98.1 |
| Sanya | 55 | 54 | 98.2 |
| Xuchang | 55 | 55 | 100 |
| Xuzhou | 49 | 49 | 100 |
| Panjin | 42 | 37 | 88.1 |
| Xining | 44 | 33 | 75 |
| Ruijin | 35 | 23 | 65.7 |
| Guangze | 39 | 34 | 87.2 |
| Xiongan | 48 | 42 | 87.5 |
| Tianjin Eco-City | 23 | 21 | 91.3 |
| Beijing EDTA | 43 | 42 | 97.7 |
Typical experience mode of the first batch of ZWC pilot construction.
| Number | Main Waste Categories | Typical Experience Mode | Pilot Cities or Regions |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | General industrial solid waste | The collaborative waste reduction mode of copper–sulfur and phosphorus chemical industry–cement building materials industry | Tongling |
| 2 | “Green industrial park + green manufacturing system” mode | Beijing EDTA | |
| 3 | Construction waste management and resource utilization mode of “government-led, market operation, franchise and recycling”; |
Xuchang | |
| 4 | Green transformation results in the industrial solid waste reduction and high-value, efficient utilization mode | Xuzhou | |
| 5 | The entire process of the construction field is the source reduction and resource utilization mode | Xiongan | |
| 6 | “Marine waste” sea and land overall control of Weihai mode | Weihai | |
| 7 | Comprehensive treatment demonstration mode of “green manufacturing emission reduction + park waste centralized management + electronic joint form declaration and registration” for general industrial solid waste; |
Shenzhen | |
| 8 | Collaborative mode of comprehensive utilization of industrial solid waste and waste sand and pit management | Baotou | |
| 9 | The mode of establishing green factories and building the “zero-waste mining area” Liaohe Oilfield | Panjin | |
| 10 | Agricultural |
Integrated mode of straw industrialization, utilization, collection, storage, and transportation | Tongling |
| 11 | Industrial integrated development mode of high-value utilization of agricultural organic waste | Xuchang | |
| 12 | Efficient straw return to the field as well as purchase, storage, and use of the integrated diversified utilization mode | Xuzhou | |
| 13 | Ecological pasture mode of high-quality development of agriculture and animal husbandry; |
Xining | |
| 14 | Rural household waste classification mode based on credit system construction; |
Weihai | |
| 15 | Livestock and poultry manure resource utilization, planting, and breeding combined with the circular development mode | Ruijin | |
| 16 | Hazardous waste | Hazardous waste management “butler-type” service mode | Beijing EDTA |
| 17 | Green development mode of building materials industry for collaborative disposal of solid waste by cement kiln | Xuchang | |
| 18 | Hazardous waste full-life-cycle management mode | Xuzhou | |
| 19 | Chain-type refined management mode of hazardous waste of “source reduction-full collection and transportation-standardized utilization” | Shaoxing | |
| 20 | The whole-process management mode of “source classification, regional coordination, and centralized disposal” of medical waste | Sanya | |
| 21 | The mode of hazardous waste “ledger list-grid inspection-information supervision”; |
Shenzhen | |
| 22 | A “whitelist” system for inter-provincial transfer of hazardous waste and a joint law enforcement mechanism; |
Chongqing (the main urban area) | |
| 23 | Domestic waste | Household waste management mode based on fine management in small towns | China-Singapore Tianjin Eco-City |
| 24 | Integrated collection, transportation, and disposal mode of urban and rural household waste | Xuzhou | |
| 25 | Integrated garbage classification and management mode of vocational and housing services | Xiongan | |
| 26 | Kitchen and kitchen waste full utilization mode | Xining | |
| 27 | The rural governance mode of “Dry and wet classification, source reduction, local utilization, efficient transformation” | Guangze | |
| 28 | The plastic pollution comprehensive control mode of “Source reduction, process control, and land and sea coordination” | Sanya | |
| 29 | Household waste “source diversion and reduction-classification, collection, transportation, and resource-full incineration and harmless” mode | Shenzhen | |
| 30 | “Planning first, off-site compensation” original domestic waste near-zero landfill mode | Chongqing (the main urban area) |
Some characteristic regulatory documents for ZWCs in Shenzhen.
| Number | Code Name | Content |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Regulations on Ecological Environment Protection of Shenzhen Special Economic Zone | The regulations deepen the extended producer responsibility system; clarify that online monitoring can be used as the basis for administrative penalties; improve the environmental credit management system. |
| 2 | The Green Finance Regulations of Shenzhen Special Economic Zone | The regulations are China’s first legislation in the field of green finance, clarifying the green finance standard and creating a green investment evaluation system. |
| 3 | Regulations of Shenzhen Municipality on Classification of Household Waste | The regulations clarify the classification standards of household garbage, clarifying the management requirements of the entire process of household garbage delivery, collection, transportation, and treatment. |
| 4 | Regulations on Green Development of Shenzhen Special Economic Zone | The regulations aim to reduce the source of construction waste from various aspects and define the construction and management rules of the whole life of buildings. |
| 5 | The Construction Waste Management Measures of Shenzhen Municipality | The regulations undertook the initiative in a management and control system for the quota discharge of construction waste in new projects. |
Basic information of the cities in the Pearl River Delta.
| Population |
GDP |
Per-Capital Disposable Income (CNY 1) | % of Primary: |
% Urbanization Rate | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Guangzhou | 1874.03 | 25,019.11 | 68,304 | 1.2:26.3:72.5 | 86.19 |
| Shenzhen | 1763.38 | 27,670.24 | 64,878 | 0.1:37.8:62.1 | 99.54 |
| Zhuhai | 244.96 | 3481.94 | 55,936 | 1.7:43.4:54.9 | 90.47 |
| Foshan | 951.88 | 10,816.47 | 56,245 | 1.5:56.4:42.1 | 95.20 |
| Huizhou | 605.72 | 4221.79 | 39,745 | 5.2:50.5:44.3 | 72.80 |
| Dongguan | 1048.36 | 9650.19 | 56,533 | 0.3:53.8:45.9 | 92.15 |
| Zhongshan | 443.11 | 3151.59 | 52,754 | 2.3:49.4:48.3 | 86.96 |
| Jiangmen | 480.41 | 3200.95 | 33,667 | 8.6:41.6:49.8 | 67.63 |
| Zhaoqing | 411.69 | 2311.65 | 34,752 | 18.9:39:42.1 | 51.02 |
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