1. Introduction
Circadian rhythms are endogenous autonomous oscillators of physiological activities and widely exist in humans, plants, animals, and even some bacteria, especially in poultry [1,2]. Previous research showed that circadian rhythm plays a key role in hormone secretion, metabolism, immunity, musculoskeletal growth, and so on [3]. It is reported that light regimes can affect the frequency and duration of circadian behavior in Beijing You Chicken laying hens [4]. The disturbed circadian clock plays a role in the development of feather pecking [5]. Feeding chickens based on their biological rhythms reduces aggressiveness and can help increase the efficiency of the production of poultry products [6].
Light is one of the important environmental factors for poultry growth and reproduction; moreover, light intensity, wavelength, photoperiod, and spectral composition all contribute to animal welfare, yield, immune function, poultry growth and development [7,8,9,10]. Suitable light sources provide a new alternative strategy for improving the welfare, production performance, and commercial returns of poultry. Light is also a key factor affecting circadian rhythm and plays an important role in it [11]. A reasonable lighting schedule can regulate the circadian rhythm of poultry by regulating the level of melatonin and clock gene expression, whereas unreasonable lighting can disturb the circadian rhythm [12].
To explore relevant research on light and circadian rhythm and to analyze the research frontiers in this domain, CiteSpace was used to draw knowledge maps and systematically expounded the subject distribution, research status, and research frontiers in the domain of light and circadian rhythm on the basis of relevant documents and reviews, which were retrieved from the core collection of Web of Science (WoS), in the domain of light and circadian rhythm in the past five years (2018–2022). We also summarized the key contents according to keywords induced by CiteSpace, providing a theoretical basis for follow-up research on light and circadian rhythm.
Based on CiteSpace, this work highlights the regulation of light on the circadian rhythm of poultry. This review can clarify the research progress and frontiers in light effect on circadian rhythm and provides new insights into the effect of light on poultry growth performance and its regulation mechanism on the circadian rhythm of poultry.
2. Visual Analysis Based on CiteSpace
2.1. Data Source and Method
Data in this study were collected from the core database of WoS. We searched for documents with “light” as the title word, “rhythm” as the index word, and “article” or “review” as the document type; the period ranged from 2018 to 2022. We imported the search results into CiteSpace to remove repetitive documents and obtained 841 documents. The retrieval time was 5 July 2022.
On the basis of the 841 documents, CiteSpace v.5.8. R3 was applied to create a visualization map. The time range from January 2018 to December 2022 was selected, and the years per slice were one. We selected the top 30 levels of most cited or most occurring items from each slice to draw a map of keyword co-occurrence, keywords with citation bursts, and research frontiers and then applied the JCR Journal Maps function in Overlay Maps to draw a subject distribution map. The minimum spanning tree (MST) method was employed to cut the lines with less significance in the map of keyword co-occurrence and keywords with citation bursts to improve the simplicity and readability of the map.
2.2. Annual Quantity of Publications
The annual number of publications from 2018 to 2022 is shown in Figure 1a, and it increases every year (the annual number of documents issued in 2022 was removed). These data show that the degree of attention and research in this domain gradually increases, which may be driven by the increasing influence of light pollution caused by excessive light exposure, such as artificial light, on human and animal rhythms. The trend line analysis of the annual publications from 2018 to 2021 is shown in Figure 1b, and the linear curve y = 17.4x + 144.5 (R2 = 0.9972) shown by the dotted line in the figure is the trend line of the annual document distribution, which has a good fitting effect and reliable results. Therefore, the annual document distribution in the past four years has increased linearly.
2.3. CiteSpace Maps
2.3.1. Dual-Map Overlays
Figure 2 shows the dual-map overlays drawn by CiteSpace. Dual-map overlays use a combination analysis method based on a double-graph design and are formed by superimposing the journal discipline base maps of the citing and cited literature. It can integrate scientific research at the macro level into specific professional disciplines, help show the subject distribution and citation trajectory in various domains, study the information transmission and knowledge development among journals, and reveal the propagation law [13,14,15].
The citing journals are on the left side of the map, whereas the cited journals are on the right side; the curve in the middle is the citation path. The density and thickness of the curve are positively related to the frequency and intensity of knowledge flow among journals in the domain, the horizontal axis of the circle is positively related to the number of authors in the domain, and the vertical axis is positively related to the number of documents in the domain. The labels near the circle are the main research domains. Four major citation paths can be obtained from the map: studies published in “ecology, earth, marine” journals tended to cite journals primarily in the domains of “molecular science, biology, genetics”; studies published in “molecular science, biology, immunology” journals tended to cite journals primarily in the domains of “plant, ecology, zoology”, “molecular science, biology, genetics”, and “psychology, education, social”. This research domain covers many subjects but mainly focuses on “molecular science” and “biology”.
2.3.2. Analysis of Keyword Co-Occurrence
High-frequency keywords represent a hot topic in the domain, and high-centrality keywords reflect the influence and status of the research content in the domain [16,17]. Therefore, the keywords of the domain help in the understanding of research hotspots and research status in this domain.
We used CiteSpace to analyze the co-occurrence of keywords in the domain of light and rhythm and MST for clipping. The results are shown in Figure 3a, which has 298 keywords to form association nodes (n = 298), 620 connections between nodes (E = 620), and a co-occurrence network density of 0.014. A large number of nodes indicate that the research scope is wide and the research framework is mature. The size of the node is in direct proportion to the number of documents containing the keyword. Differently colored rings on the node indicate the different publication years of the documents containing the keywords. The thickness of the rings is in direct proportion to the number of documents published in the year. The chromaticity card in the lower right corner corresponds to the years indicated by different colors (from blue at the bottom to red at the top).
The top 20 keywords in terms of frequency are listed in Table 1. In addition to the theme words of rhythm and circadian rhythm, melatonin, sleep, clock, and other aspects associated with sleep and factors affecting sleep are the most studied. The study also focuses on the influence of light on gene expression, reaction, growth, and the circadian clock. Second, the influence mechanism of light on circadian rhythms, including the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and ganglion cells, is also the focus of the study in this domain. Third, studying the sensitivity of different groups to light in the domain is also crucial. Given the low frequency of occurrence, some nodes with high centrality (>0.1) did not show in the figure (e.g., body temperature (0.22), melatonin inhibition (0.13), disruption (0.1, emitting diode (0.1)).
2.3.3. Bibliometric Analysis of Keywords with Citation Bursts
To further explore research in the domain of light and rhythm and pursue the dynamic development process in this domain, we used CiteSpace to extract keywords with citation bursts [18]. We ran the “burst” function, set the minimum duration to one, and did not change other parameters. The burst items found were displayed as 34, indicating 34 keywords with citation bursts. The top keywords with the strongest citation burst intensity were selected to form the map of keywords with citation bursts. The red line indicates the time period of the keyword burst, and the blue line represents the time interval. Among the top keywords, most keywords with citation bursts exist in 2018, indicating that 2018 is an important year in this research domain. Messenger RNA has the longest burst time and has become a research hotspot since then. White light and constant light are also current research hotspots. Based on the top 25 keywords with the strongest citation bursts (Figure 4), the research focuses on various factors affecting the human body (e.g., light on antioxidants and breast cancer), research animals (e.g., drosophila melanogaster and Syrian hamster), and social factors (e.g., jet lag and night shift work).
2.3.4. Research Frontiers
The cited documents are the intellectual base of the research domain, and the label obtained by intellectual base clustering is the research frontiers of the field. Given the knowledge update cycle, we drew the timeline view of research frontiers, as shown in Figure 5, so that we can explore the development status of the domain and the current research frontiers. The relevant information on the map is shown in the top right corner. Q is 0.6436, and S is 0.8859, indicating that this clustering is reasonable and effective. The node (Figure 5) is the cited literature, and the size of the node is proportional to the number of citations of corresponding documents. The nodes with purple (high centrality) and red (high citation) in the outer circle are important documents in the field and deserve attention.
Using the LLR algorithm, we obtained 11 clustering labels: #0 lighting, #1 light pollution, #2 light at night, #3 hepatocyte, #4 SCN, #5 stroke, #6 refractive error, #7 blue light, #8 immune function, #9 chick, and #10 insect conservation. The timeline shows that different clusters have different duration, and some clusters have lasted for 8 years and remain active (e.g., #0 lighting). The current research frontiers are #0 lighting, #hepatocyte, #4 SCN, #7 blue light, and #8 immune function, and they are not only limited to the influence of light on circadian rhythm but also extended to the influence of other functions of human or animals (e.g., hepatocyte and immune function).
3. Effect of Light on Poultry
As shown in Section 2, Section 3 and Section 4, light is one of the most important environmental factors for poultry. Light intensity, wavelength, photoperiod, and spectral composition have certain effects on poultry welfare, yield, and growth and development, especially for chickens [19]. In recent years, light sources with low cost and long life (such as LED lamps) have been paid attention to and widely applied in the poultry industry. Different light sources with different light intensities and wavelengths provide a new alternative strategy for improving poultry welfare, production performance and commercial returns to choose the right light source.
Light also affects the growth and development of poultry. In the early stage of growth, chicks raised under green light grow faster than the others [20,21]; however, chicks raised under red light grow slowly [22]. During the incubation period, green light, red light, blue light, and white light all suggested a promoting effect on the growth and development of embryos [23,24]. Appropriate photoperiod can also promote poultry growth and weight gain [19]. Broilers exposed to flickering light and intermittent feeding had the highest body weight. In addition, the study found that broilers exposed to flickering light had higher quality than broilers exposed to continuous light.
In addition, studies on the relationship between light and productivity provide a new way to improve the productivity of poultry. Long-wavelength light was more effective in promoting poultry reproduction than short-wavelength light. Long-wavelength red light can lead to stronger ovarian activity [25], promote sexual organ development in chickens, enhance sex hormone secretion and sexual maturity of chickens, increase the laying rate [26], and increase the fecundity of pigeons [27]. It can also improve the sperm quality of cocks and the egg production of laying hens and quails. Except for wavelength, photoperiod also has certain effects on the reproductive performance of livestock, supplementary artificial light can increase the reproductive capacity of geese [28], and exposure to 12 h of darkness reduces the spawning of birds [29]. In addition, uneven light affects the production performance of chickens [30,31].
In addition to animal welfare, light has a certain effect on the immune function of poultry. As for the immune function, the immune function of embryos cultured under red and blue light was stronger after hatching compared with that of embryos cultured under white light [32,33]. In addition to the influence of different light sources, photoperiod is a factor affecting the immune function of poultry. Zheng et al. found that intermittent light considerably improved the nonspecific immunity of broilers compared with continuous illumination for 24 h [34]. House et al. also thought that the immune function of Peking ducks exposed to 20 L:4D photoperiod was higher than that of Peking ducks exposed to 16 L:8D photoperiod [35].
Light also has a certain effect on the hatching rate of poultry eggs and the welfare of poultry, such as stress response, comfortable behavior, fear, and depression. Light during incubation can reduce posthatching fear [36,37,38], and cubs hatched in light may cope better with posthatching stress conditions than those hatched in the dark, thereby helping them adapt well to the postnatal environment and improve their welfare [24,39]. However, exposure to different light sources during incubation produces different effects on the fear and behavior of poultry after birth; however, no unified conclusion has been achieved. Compared with green light, red light and white light are the key spectra to reduce fear and stress sensitivity in broilers [40]. Broilers incubated with red light were more inclined to rest and other comfort behavior, thus greatly improving the welfare of broilers [24]. Other studies have suggested that red and yellow light activated the movement and fear response of broilers, and the choice of blue light and green and blue light makes broilers more inclined to sit and wait for comfortable exercise [41]. In addition, for hatched poultry, sunshine length also had a certain effect on animal welfare [42]. Compared with the 16 L:8D light system, the 20 L:4D light system could reduce the stress of ducklings [35]. Prolonged continuous light exposure also has adverse effects on the welfare of poultry, and continuous light exposure in the early stages of life destroys the expression of the circadian clock gene and BDNF/ERK pathways in the hippocampus, leading to depressed behavior in chickens [43].
4. Light Affects the Circadian Rhythm in Poultry by Regulating Melatonin Levels
4.1. Effects of Melatonin
Melatonin is a neuroendocrine hormone whose main synthesis site is the pineal gland, and it can also be produced in peripheral organs, such as the intestine, retina, and skin [44,45]. Plasma melatonin levels begin to increase in the evening, reaching a maximum from 2:00 to 4:00 a.m., followed by a slow decrease with almost zero melatonin levels during the day, indicating that sensitivity to light response is a prominent feature of melatonin [46,47,48]. As an important hormone to prevent metabolic and physiological disorders in poultry, melatonin not only has a temporal and biological function but also plays an important regulatory role in reproduction, feed utilization, growth, body temperature, immunity, physiological behavior, energy metabolism, and neuroendocrine aspects (Table 2) [49,50].
4.2. Effects of Light on Melatonin
The disorder of melatonin secretion can affect circadian rhythm, exercise, body temperature, immunity, and other physiological activities [50,51,52]. The interference of artificial light at night can affect the production of melatonin. Studies have shown that even very low-intensity night light can reduce melatonin expression and that the degree of inhibition is proportional to the intensity of night light [53,54]. In addition, light duration remarkably affects melatonin content. It was shown that compared with constant lighting of 24 L:0D, intermittent lighting of 16 L:2D:1 L:2D:1 L:2D and 17 L:3D:1 L:3D produced higher melatonin levels in broiler chickens [34].
Table 2Regulation of melatonin on poultry growth and development, animal welfare, and immune level.
| Poultry Types | Parameters | Role of Melatonin | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Quail, chicks, broiler chicken | Growth regulation | Promote the secretion of somatostatin growth hormone and the promotion of growth | [55,56,57] |
| Broiler chicken | Disease control | Reduce ascites and sudden death syndrome | [49] |
| Chicken | Immune function | Increase antibody, leukocyte, and lymphocyte formation | [58,59,60,61] |
| Laying bird | Welfare improvement | Improve | [62] |
| Chicken | Reproduction function | Promote granulose cell formation, enhance follicle growth and exert an amelioration of the ovary oxidative stress | [45,63,64,65] |
| Chicken | Cryopreserved chicken sperm | Improvement of quality | [66] |
| Chicken | Feed conversion ratio | Improve | [67] |
| Laying hen | Egg weight | Increase | [58,67] |
| Broiler chicken | Heat stress | Reduce the side effects of heat stress and reduce the mortality rate | [68] |
| Chicken | Embryotoxicity | Protect against the benzo(e)pyrene embryotoxicity | [51] |
Constant lighting was found to inhibit melatonin levels by reducing arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase (Aanat) activity [69]. Monochromatic light at different wavelengths also affects melatonin expression (Figure 6), and Aanat is the rate-limiting enzyme for melatonin synthesis [70]. The increase in its content can promote the synthesis of melatonin, and the content of Aanat is affected by positive and negative clock genes [71]. Studies have shown that green light promotes the expression of cAanat genes by increasing the expression of positive clock genes (cClock, cBmal1, cBmal2) [72,73,74], thereby promoting the secretion of melatonin in chicken [75,76,77]. On the contrary, the expression of the positive clock gene is weak under the red light condition, which weakens the expression of cAanat and reduces the melatonin level of chickens reared under red light [75].
Creb can promote the secretion of Aanat, and the phosphorylation of Creb increases the mRNA content of Aanat by about 100 times [71]. Moreover, Jiang et al. found that the mRNA content of cCreb in broilers reared under green light increased and promoted the secretion of melatonin. The decrease in mRNA content has the opposite effect on melatonin levels. Furthermore, the influence of monochromatic light on melatonin in the chicken embryo period is different from that in the juvenile period. Studies have found that the melatonin rhythm during incubation under red and white light was the highest, whereas the melatonin rhythm in green and blue light was the lowest. Postembryonic exposure to green and white light induced an increase in melatonin biosynthesis. It is indicated that rhythmic melatonin biosynthesis can transfer ambient light information to poultry embryos [78].
4.3. Regulation of Light on Circadian Rhythm in Poultry
The retina and pineal gland are sensitive to light [75,79]. The circadian pacemaker of poultry consists of the retina, pineal gland, and SCN, which cooperate with each other to form a complete input–pacemaker–output system [4,80]. SCN acts as the central clock for daily rhythm that controls the circadian rhythm at the same step as the 24 h light–dark cycle. Exposure to constant light or even dim light at night leads to the desynchronization of SCN neurons, as well as the desynchronization of peripheral clocks in body tissues [81,82,83]. Light stimulates intrinsic photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (IpRGC) in the retina, and IpRGC releases melanin proteins, which depolarize glutamate, neuroactive peptide, and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide into retinal hypothalamic tract (RHT) neurons connected to the retinal sensing core of the SCN; then, RHT transmits signals to the SCN. SCN is hyperpolarized by K+ at night and depolarized by Na+ during the day, synchronized with day and night [4]. SCN induces circadian rhythm and sleep by driving the nocturnal synthesis and feedback of pineal melatonin [84]. During the day, SCN regulates sympathetic neural activity through the release of norepinephrine, thus inhibiting the production of melatonin in the pineal gland and retina [85]. Simultaneously, SCN neurons pass through a direct route (using the autonomic nervous system) and an indirect route (transmitting rhythmic information) to other brain regions and peripheral organs [86] to achieve the hormonal signals controlled by the SCN. Melatonin produced in the pineal gland can send signals back to SCN and other parts of the brain and peripheral tissues to help maintain the circadian rhythm [87].
The expression of the core clock genes has a circadian rhythm, and positive clock genes (cClock, cBmal1, and cBmal2) begin to increase during the day and decline after they peak in the morning or midway through the night [88]. By contrast, negative clock genes (cCry1, cCry2, cPer2, and cPer3) increase during the night and peak either early or midway through the day. Interestingly, melatonin levels are also low during the day, increase in the evening and peak midway through the night, and then decrease gradually [89]. Monochromatic light (Figure 6) also affects the core clock genes (cClock, cBmal1, cBmal2, cCry1, cCry2, cPer2, and cPer3) [90,91] with increased expression of positive clock genes (cClock, cBmal1, cBmal2) and decreased negative clock genes (cCry1, cCry2, cPer2, and cPer3) under green light conditions [80].
As reported, the hypothalamic clock gene Bmal1 expression for pigeons with monochromatic light exposure was involved in the birth rate [92]. The melatonin level of 10-week-old turkeys with a significant circadian rhythm was strongly affected by light [93]. Melatonin may be associated with an expression of the clock gene in the pancreas of chickens [94]. Light color affected the expression of cell clock regulators to regulate the expression of cAanat in the eyes [95].
As shown in Figure 6, at the beginning of the circadian rhythm, the positive regulatory factor outputs cycle protein CLOCK and BMAL1 to form a heterodimer, which binds to the E-box in the promoter region of negative feedback factor Per and Cry to promote their transcription [96]. The accumulation of Per and Cry can lead to the inactivation of the heterodimer to inhibit their transcriptional generation. The mRNA levels of Per and Cry decrease so that the circadian cycle begins again at dawn [97]. As the downstream gene of the Clock-Bmal1 heterodimer, when CRY is expressed in large quantities, their protein products will also form heterodimers and then re-enter the nucleus to inhibit the formation of the Clock-Bmal1 complex as an automatic regulation feedback loop [98]. The nuclear receptor (REV-ERBα and REV-ERBβ) and orphan receptor associated with retinoic acid (RORα and RORβ) can compete for the ROR binding site on the BMAL1 promoter affecting the expression of BMAL1 [99]. Specifically, ROR activates the expression of BMAL1, while REV-ERB inhibits BMAL1, thereby inhibiting the function of the clock protein. Therefore, these genes together form a secondary regulatory feedback loop. The exploration of the relationships between clock genes and circadian rhythm was important for light regulation in poultry, which can shed light on the poultry breeding industry, improving poultry health and animal welfare.
5. Conclusions
In this work, we systematically analyze the subject distribution, research status, and research frontiers of light and circadian rhythm through CiteSpace. The research frontiers of lighting effect on circadian rhythm were lighting, hepatocyte, SCN, blue light, and immune function. Light regimes played important roles in poultry welfare, yield, growth and development and affected the circadian rhythm in poultry by regulating melatonin levels. Aanat is a rate-limiting enzyme in melatonin synthesis, and different light regimes may influence melatonin levels by affecting Aanat expression. The automatic and secondary regulatory feedback loops played crucial roles in circadian rhythm, and the changes in the clock genes expression were involved in the control of circadian rhythm in poultry. The exploration of the relationships between clock genes and circadian rhythm was important for the application of light regulation in poultry.
Conceptualization, methodology, software, investigation, writing—original draft preparation, writing—review and editing, Y.Y. and Z.L.; project administration, Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Dual-map overlays of research domains (The curve in the middle is the citation path, and the labels near the circle are the main research domains).
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Keyword co-occurrence (a) and cluster (b) analysis. The number of nodes (a) indicates the wide research scope, and the annual rings of different colors on the nodes represent the keywords appearing in the articles of different years. The smaller the number of cluster tags (b), the more keywords they contain.
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Top 25 keywords with strongest citation bursts (red line represents the year of the citation bursts).
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Timeline view of research frontiers (The size of the node is proportional to the number of citations of corresponding documents. Purple color outer circle represents high centrality, and red color outer circle represents high citation of important documents).
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Monochromatic light affects melatonin expression and negative feedback of transcription–translation.
Top 20 bodies by the frequency of appearance.
| Keywords | Frequency | Centrality |
|---|---|---|
| Rhythm | 150 | 0.02 |
| Circadian Rhythm | 142 | 0.04 |
| Melatonin | 96 | 0.04 |
| Sleep | 94 | 0.02 |
| Clock | 81 | 0.06 |
| Exposure | 77 | 0.03 |
| Expression | 67 | 0.03 |
| Gene Expression | 65 | 0.02 |
| Bright Light | 65 | 0.04 |
| Behavior | 50 | 0.06 |
| Melanopsin | 49 | 0.05 |
| Entrainment | 46 | 0.05 |
| Response | 46 | 0.03 |
| Growth | 45 | 0.05 |
| Circadian Clock | 44 | 0.01 |
| Suprachiasmatic Nucleus | 42 | 0.06 |
| Time | 41 | 0.06 |
| Ganglion Cell | 40 | 0.09 |
| Night | 37 | 0.05 |
| Sensitivity | 34 | 0.02 |
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1 School of Electromechanical and Automotive Engineering, Huzhou Vocational and Technical College, Huzhou 313000, China; School of Grain Science and Technology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Changhui Road 666, Zhenjiang 212100, China
2 School of Grain Science and Technology, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Changhui Road 666, Zhenjiang 212100, China