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1. Introduction
Although the roles of tour guides are changing with the increased availability of information technology, they still shape many tourists’ experiences (Curtin, 2010; Tsaur and Tu, 2019; Mackenzie and Raymond, 2020; Zhu and Xu, 2021). In some less developed areas with low consumption and a fragile natural environment, as well as where freedom of movement is constrained, it may not be realistic or even possible to use technological devices for interpretation (Black et al., 2001) or to support self-guided tours. In such situations, tour guides are important as pathfinders (Cohen, 1985), as well in the provision of information, entertaining their charges and promoting group cohesion and safety. Such guides, who travel with the tour group, have a different and wider set of responsibilities to those who guide tourists at a specific attraction.
Tour guides influence the behavior of tourists and can help to reduce their environmental footprint and have a positive impact on sustainable development (de la Barre, 2013; Randall and Rollins, 2009; Rokenes et al., 2015; Yamada, 2011). They can raise tourists’ awareness and alter their attitudes by providing local knowledge (Yamada, 2011), which enhances their understanding and appreciation of natural and cultural resources. Tour guides influence tourists’ decisions, can monitor their behavior and foster post-visit environmentally friendly and conservation attitudes and behaviors (Weiler and Kim, 2011). These outcomes have been shown in a variety of different settings, including in the Amazon region (Periera, 2005; Pereira and Mykletun, 2012), in Canada for kayaking guides in marine tourism (Randall and Rollins, 2009), in India for whitewater rafting guides and for trekking guides in mountain areas (Serenari et al., 2012), in Conservation Area of Nepal (Poudel and Nyaupane, 2013), in urban cultural heritage tourism in Turkey (Çetinkaya and Öter, 2015) and in mountain biking and backcountry ski tours in the USA (Rokenes et al., 2015).
The interaction between tourists and hosts is a two-way process that is often mediated by tour guides as culture brokers. Differences in race, culture and social background affect the attitudes and behaviors of tourists and their effects on the communities that they visit (Wu and Lin, 2008). Cultural differences in interaction occur in this process as a result of differences in philosophies and practices (Chen...