1. Introduction
In the constantly evolving fashion industry landscape, there has been a notable increase in the popularity of second-hand clothing, as indicated by the expansion of second-hand product-trading platforms and the emergence of novel second-hand retail formats [1]. While the recent expansion of second-hand product trading platforms may counter fashion companies’ interests, they offer a means for individuals to sell used goods and purchase new ones. Consequently, they expand the overall market and enhance producers’ profitability [2]. Additionally, if a fashion product has continuous value, it becomes accessible through second-hand product trading platforms to individuals who could previously not afford the brand’s clothing. This outcome is advantageous for the company, as it cultivates potential customers. Therefore, the continuous value should be considered when innovating a product.
Additionally, the fashion industry’s short-term, institutional, and seasonal changes have made it one of the industries with the greatest environmental impacts [3]. Considerable research has been devoted to sustainable fashion to mitigate the environmental degradation the fashion industry causes. This research encompasses a wide range of efforts, including exploring sustainable business models, advancing novel technologies, conceiving and utilizing fresh materials, and moving towards a circular supply chain [4,5,6,7]. However, only a few studies have considered the design elements themselves when promoting sustainable development in the fashion industry. Hur and Cassidy (2019) [8] highlighted the challenges of incorporating sustainability into the fashion design process. These challenges include a lack of consensus and knowledge regarding sustainable design, and a lack of design-led approaches to implementing sustainability in fashion. Sustainability in the fashion industry has been studied from many aspects, such as slow fashion and recycling of fashion products [4,5]; no research has investigated the elements of product design that can promote sustainability in the fashion industry, and our research aims to fill this gap.
Buying second-hand or used clothes is one of the most sustainable techniques for using clothing [9]. Fashion products with continuous value can be resold on second-hand product trading platforms, thus promoting sustainable fashion practices. Design-led approaches for helping the fashion industry achieve sustainability are lacking. Therefore, this study focuses on second-hand product trading platforms, highlights the effects of design elements on the continuation of product value, and raises the following research question:
RQ: How do various design elements contribute to the continuation of fashion product value?
This study focused on coats to eliminate any bias that might arise from comparing different clothing categories. Coats are an ideal subject for our research, as they are less likely to be damaged or become dirty and circulate more easily on second-hand product trading platforms. Thus, it should be mentioned that the results of this study were derived from observations of a single clothing category. This study explores the impact of product design on continuous value based on five elements (classical, transformative, patterned, multimaterial, and decorative [10]), using data from a second-hand product-trading platform. Additionally, the critical element in measuring the value of a product is the customer’s perceived value, which is reflected in the amount they are willing to pay [11]. To evaluate the continuous value of a product, the winning-bid price on second-hand product trading platforms was used as the dependent variable. By examining the impact of design elements on the continuous value of a product, this study aims to assist companies in selecting design elements that can sustain the value of fashion products and strike a balance between environmental concerns and business objectives.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Sustainable Fashion and Product Innovation
The term “sustainable fashion” has arisen as a broad concept [12]; the working definition of sustainable fashion is: “The variety of means by which a fashion item or behavior could be perceived to be more sustainable, including (but not limited to) environmental, social, slow fashion, reuse, recycling, cruelty-free, anti-consumption, and production practices”. Previous studies on sustainable product innovation have focused on various aspects, such as material choice, production methods, and business strategies [4,5,6,7,13,14]. These investigations aimed to minimize environmental impacts by considering the entire product life cycle while improving product quality and design. However, Karell and Niinimäki (2020) [15] highlighted that a company’s sustainable design practices primarily focus on material selection and aspects that support product longevity. Hur and Cassidy (2019) [8] emphasized the difficulties in integrating sustainability into fashion design, including an absence of consensus and knowledge concerning sustainable design and insufficient use of design-led strategies for sustainability in the fashion industry. The design elements of sustainable fashion product innovation, such as innovation and design practicality, can also improve product quality and value [8]. However, the specific design elements contributing to sustainable fashion product innovation are poorly understood. Consequently, this study posited that integrating product design elements into the innovation process promotes sustainable fashion.
2.2. Consumer-Perceived Value and Value Continuation
There are several types of value, including economic, social, and hedonic [16]. No matter what kind of value, it is important for consumers to be able to perceive the value, which we call perceived value. Consumer-perceived value is a critical factor in determining the value of a product. It reflects the customer’s assessment of the product’s overall worth and is determined by various factors, including its quality, features, price, and reputation. For consumers, perceived value determines the amount of money they are willing to pay [11]. Thus, perceived value plays a crucial role in gaining a competitive advantage and influencing customer repurchase intention [11].
However, consumer loyalty is dynamic and strongly influenced by consumers’ emotional attitudes over time [17]. The continuation of product value and perceived loyalty align [18]. Ongoing customer relationships are also related to the continuation of product value [19]. Perceived value continuation is expected to help to maintain a fashion company’s sustainable business performance. Continuous value refers to the ability of a product to maintain its value over time. Consumers play a crucial role in the continuation of value as they provide feedback on the performance, functionality, and overall experience of the product. Perceived value is crucial for gaining competitive advantage [11] and is considered the most critical indicator of repurchase intention [20,21]. For this reason, it is important for fashion companies to ensure that their products have perceived value for their customers.
2.3. Design Elements and Value Continuation
The term “design” is defined in three dimensions: function, aesthetics, and symbolism [22,23]. Consistent with these aspects, product design positively affects consumers’ willingness to buy [22,23].
Function is a key feature and is considered a success factor for product value [24]. This enables consumer engagement and stimulates dialogue among consumers [24]. Additionally, aesthetics play a crucial role in satisfying consumers, as they appreciate designers who demonstrate creativity and a willingness to challenge design norms [25]. Various studies have evaluated the importance of aesthetics [24,26,27,28]. However, symbolic design dimensions have received little attention [22]. Nevertheless, emphasizing aesthetics and functionality in highly competitive markets and providing consumers [22] with symbolism are important because they influence consumer behavior [22,29]. Successful companies maintain high innovation while providing cutting-edge product designs [30,31]. Product design innovation contributes to consumers’ willingness to buy and to the product value. This aspect should be considered when designing fashion products. Understanding the appropriate use of design elements is indispensable for successful innovation in the fashion industry. The importance of design elements as creative elements is increasingly recognized [10,32]. Companies and brands motivate consumers by proposing visual designs that distinguish them from their competitors [32]. Product design is key between products and consumers and influences consumers’ final product choices [31,32,33].
However, previous studies have not sufficiently investigated how product design elements influence continuation of product value. We selected elements that have an impact on continuation of product value based on prior research [10]: (1) classic design elements as product functions; (2) transformative, (3) patterned, and (4) multimaterial design elements as aesthetic product points; and (5) decorative design elements as product symbols. We explored the contribution of these five elements to the continuation of fashion product value.
3. Methodology
3.1. Analyses Models
This study performed a multiple regression analysis with the dependent variable as the degree of continuation of the value of fashion products and the explanatory variable of design elements corresponding to the above content. We conducted an exploratory analysis by selecting important design elements in product design based on function, aesthetics, and symbolism. As many design elements are associated with fashion product innovation, we selected five important elements from previous studies: (1) classical design elements as functions; (2) transformative, (3) patterned, and (4) multimaterial design elements as aesthetic points; and (5) decorative design elements as symbols. We explore the contributions of these five elements to the continuous value of fashion products. The analytical model is shown in Figure 1.
3.2. Explanation of the Sample Selection and Size
A large part of the consumer-perceived value is reflected in the amount of money they are willing to pay [11]. Consequently, we selected the winning price of used products on second-hand product-trading platforms to represent the continuous value. We focused on the sales market of second-hand goods and collected data from a Japanese website providing auction results, “AucFan” [34]. AucFan allows users to compare, search for, and analyze product and price information on Yahoo’s auction platform. AucFan data were used with permission from the sponsors of this service. A fashion brand dataset was created based on the extracted information. AucFan is the most suitable tool for creating these data because it can search past transaction data.
In this study, we focused on coats to eliminate any bias that might arise from comparing different clothing categories. We collected data from five major fashion product categories. Although there are many categories of fashion products, this study focuses on classic style coats. Coats are an ideal subject for our research, as they are less likely to suffer damage or become dirty and circulate more easily on second-hand product trading platforms. Regarding the selection criteria for the five categories, we chose five categories of coats that had been around for a long time to compare elements between the initial and current designs based on the historical context of a product. We selected five styles of coats which have been constantly modified, with many variations in details, colors, materials, and silhouettes, and evolutionary models that have been transformed into new products. Although these coats retain their timeless appeal, they have been transformed into new fashion styles that fit the times. Observing these products helped us extract continuation elements consistent with our study’s purpose. Specifically, we targeted the “denim jacket”, “bomber (MA-1) jacket”, “biker jacket”, “trench coat”, and “duffel coat”.
For each product category, 500 data samples were collected from the most recent transition date. The data acquisition period was from 1 January 2021 to 28 February 2021. We also limited our selection to sellers from certain outlets called “Stores”, for which store opening examinations and contract procedures on the Yahoo Auction platform were completed. We collected 2500 product information data points that met our criteria for reliable transactions and product information. However, because established brands often have specific designs with many data samples, analyzing them on a transactional basis would generate an unignorable bias in our analysis. Therefore, we used fashion companies as the unit of analysis rather than individual transactions to eliminate any company-related bias. Furthermore, we calculated the average value from each company’s transaction sample data set and used it as one sample unit. We removed samples with abnormally high average winning bids (defined as JPY 100,000 or more on average) at the company level. Ultimately, we extracted 248 data samples for “denim jacket”, 179 for “bomber jacket”, 225 for “biker jacket”, 221 for “trench coat”, and 243 for “duffel coat”.
3.3. Description of Variables
3.3.1. Dependent Variable
The dependent variable was the average price of the successful bids at each company’s auction as a proxy variable. However, because of the significant differences between the winning bid prices, the average price was calculated after converting the winning bids to the natural logarithm price.
3.3.2. Explanatory Variables
The five explanatory variables in this study were the following: “classical”, “transformative”, “patterned”, “multimaterial”, and “decorative designs”. At the product-sample level, these comprise binary variables of zero and one. However, as described above, each variable value ranges from 0 to 1 because the analysis unit is the company. The evaluation criteria are as follows.
Classical Design Criteria
Several studies have shown that the more classic a piece of clothing, the less temporary it is, and therefore the more aligned it is with a sustainable perspective [35,36]. Classical clothing designs are primarily created with functionality in mind, and this focus on function has resulted in classical design elements being inherited as part of functional design. If certain design elements of a garment remain unchanged and have not undergone many modifications or alterations, they are called classic design elements. These elements have stood the test of time and have become a trademark of the brand or garment type, i.e., an essential part of it. These design elements have existed for many years and are loved and sought after by many consumers. Wartime functional design elements can also be called classic design elements because they have stood the test of time and have become trademark elements of a specific brand or garment type. Examples include the slanted shoulder design of the MA-1 bomber jacket and the pockets and buttons of military workwear, which have been adopted in modern fashion design and are considered classic design elements. Therefore, we explored classical design elements as representative elements of the functional dimensions.
Evaluation standards of “classical designs” differ depending on the product category. The criteria were as follows: those satisfying all these design elements, including those with conceptual and historical backgrounds, were set as classical design elements. If all elements were met, the variables were set to one. Otherwise, the variables were set to zero. Figure 2 presents an overview of the features of classical trench coat design.
Denim jackets (based on Levi Strauss Co.’s first, second, third, and fourth models)
Evaluation standards of “classical designs” differ depending on the product category. The criteria were as follows: those satisfying all these design elements, including those with conceptual and historical backgrounds, were set as classical design elements. If all elements were met, the variables were set to one. Otherwise, the variables were set to zero. Figure 2 presents an overview of the elements of classical trench coat design.
Denim jacket (based on Levi Strauss Co.’s first, second, third, and fourth models):
Cinch back (for waist adjustment);
Pockets (chest pocket, side pockets).
MA-1 bomber jacket (based on the original model first released by Alpha Industry Inc.):
Short length (should not be obstructive in a narrow military aircraft);
Arm holder (cigar pocket, pen holder);
Side pockets, pocket buttons;
Orange inner color (makes it easier for rescue teams to find).
Biker jacket (based on the original double bikers first released by Schott NYC):
Waist belt (controls the opening and closing of the jacket);
Cuff strap (controls ventilation);
Epaulet (secures items such as bags or backpacks onto jackets);
Side, chest, and coin pockets.
Trench coat (based on the original model first released by Burberry Group Plc):
Waist belt (controls the opening and closing of the jacket);
Cuff strap (controls ventilation);
Epaulet (secures items such as bags or backpacks onto jackets);
Side pocket;
Pleats (prevent the fabric from getting caught or pinched when standing up);
Chinstrap (fastens and secures the collar around the neck);
Storm shield (prevents clothes from getting wet when raining);
Gun strap (absorbs the recoil when firing a rifle).
Duffel coat (based on model used by the Royal Navy during World War II):
Hood (protects your head from rain or cold);
Toggle (opens and closes while wearing gloves);
Cuff strap (controls ventilation);
Front pocket (allows one to add or remove items while wearing gloves);
Gun strap (absorbs the recoil when firing a rifle);
Chinstrap (fastens and secures the collar around the neck).
Transformative Design Criteria
The term “transformation” refers to changing a shape or structure without losing its essence [31], for example designs with different “shapes” and “contours” (excluding color and size) (e.g., asymmetrical, left-right asymmetrical, and length). Designing shapes and silhouettes that differ from the original form communicates innovation and technological value while stimulating consumers’ visual aesthetic preferences [31]. Consumers tend to focus on the garments’ structural features when purchasing clothing. Clothes are designed to shape the body by adding or limiting existing forms to retain or enhance the silhouette and are regarded as fashion designs [37]. Therefore, the importance of methods and techniques for creative design can be understood [38]. Structural features of clothing are essential [39]. Transformational design can stimulate consumer aesthetic perspectives. Thus, because a product’s shape and silhouette can contribute to its value, adopting a transformational design related to aesthetics may help maintain its continuous value.
Five product images were prepared using a standard design for each product category. If different designs (e.g., asymmetry, left–right asymmetry, and length) with different shapes and silhouettes, excluding color and size, were selected, the variable was set to one. Otherwise, the variable was set to zero. Figure 3 presents an overview of the transformative bike jacket design elements.
Pattern Design Criteria
Pattern design refers to clothing patterns representing a brand’s traditions and symbols. Pattern design refers to print design, which encompasses the use of patterns, graphics, and symbols printed or painted onto the surface of a garment. In this context, “pattern” refers to garment surface design. Specifically, it indicates where the product is visible on the garment and displays a specific pattern on the back or front fabric (such as the Burberry check or Louis Vuitton monogram). These patterns are used to enhance a product’s appearance and aesthetics [16] and can also facilitate consumers’ willingness to buy [16]. Specific patterns are designed to distinguish one brand’s products from those of other brands, thereby shaping its image [40]. Thus, pattern production is crucial in fashion product design to strengthen product value and adopting a patterned design element may contribute to the continuation of product value.
If the product displayed a specific pattern (e.g., Burberry check or Louis Vuitton monogram) on the back or front fabric in a location visible on clothes, this variable was set to one; otherwise, it was set to zero. Figure 4 presents an overview of the pattern design elements of bomber jackets.
Multimaterial Design Criteria
The implementation of a multimaterial design has the potential to substantially influence product aesthetics. Specifically, this means that the front part of the product is made of different materials and is clearly distinguishable (e.g., the front part is cotton, and only the pockets are made of leather; the front is nylon, and only the sleeves are made of wool). Multimaterial design refers to the combination of different materials and the dismantling and experimental reconstruction of established designs to express designer skills, creativity, and originality [30,41,42]. Garments comprise multiple parts that are sewn or layered together to create the final silhouette. Individual silhouettes are prepared by combining different fabrics and materials. Designers can create unique and visually appealing designs by combining different materials, textures, and colors [37]. Thus, multimaterial design can enhance the aesthetics of a product, including multimaterial design as a product design element, and may contribute to the continuous value of fashion products.
If the front part of a product was made of visibly distinct materials (e.g., the front is cotton, and only the pockets are made of leather; the front is nylon, and only the sleeves are made of wool), the variable was set to 1. If these variations could not be confirmed, the variable was set to zero. Figure 5 presents an overview of the multimaterial design elements in a bomber jacket.
Decorative Design Criteria
Symbolism refers to the meaning or association evoked by a product or a service [43]. Products frequently carry symbolic meanings [44]. Decorative design stimulates visual and sensory perceptions and provides designs related to symbolic shapes and colors as signs of access to new products [37]. Therefore, we explore decorative design elements as representations of symbolism.
Decorative design refers to adding decorations, such as embroidery and prints, and specifically products with decorative designs, such as embroidery, prints, studs, medals, and logo marks (such as the Versace Medusa badge and Chanel C mark belt). These designs were created specifically to satisfy complex requirements [45]. Specific decorative designs can be icons that express classical, luxurious, romantic, historical, or futuristic elements [31]. Some designers offer products inspired by these designs, constantly reinterpreting and updating fashion products with new value. Furthermore, decorative designs increase product value [42] and create new fashion silhouettes [37], promoting symbolism and diversity. Therefore, adopting decorative designs based on symbolism may contribute to product value continuation.
If the product had decorative designs such as embroidery, print, studs, medals, and logo marks (e.g., Versace Medusa badge and Chanel C mark belt), the variable was set to one. If this could not be confirmed, the variable was set to zero. Figure 6 presents an overview of the decorative design elements of a denim jacket.
3.4. Control Variables
In addition to the five design elements, several other factors can influence the bid price of a product. In this study, we examined and organized such factors in apparel products while collecting data and included them in the control variables.
Material. Product value depends on the price and quality of the material used. Thus, materials may also affect the winning bid prices. Therefore, for the materials used in each of the five product categories, the variable was set to one, and were set to zero otherwise.
Additional function. The inclusion of additional cold protection and waterproofing functions in fashion products has been confirmed to be influenced by various factors, such as the region’s climate. These functions are assumed to affect the product value. Therefore, additional functions may affect the price of the winning bid. When such elements are added as functions other than classical design in the five product categories, the corresponding variables are set to one, and were set to zero otherwise.
Additional design. Processed and stitched designs were confirmed for denim jackets as additional design elements. These additional design elements have the potential to affect product value. Therefore, additional designs may affect the winning bid price. Thus, despite their small number, the variables related to these added design elements were included in addition to the five main design elements. Variables were set to one if additional design elements were confirmed, and were set to zero otherwise.
Coordination. Product value can be affected by the simplicity and flashiness of the design and the use of flashy colors and color schemes. Therefore, coordination may also affect the winning bid prices. Therefore, the number of colors used, which differed per product, was set as an element of coordination. Thus, for each color, this variable was set to one and zero for applicable and non-applicable colors, respectively.
Size. Each size is suitable for a different population base, and depending on its rarity, the winning bid price may vary; therefore, we set the sizes as control variables. The variable was set for the XL size. The applicable and non-applicable variables were one and zero, respectively.
Color. As the product value may vary depending on the color, the winning bid price may also vary, and a variable was set for the color used in each product category. If applicable, the variable was set to one; otherwise, it was zero.
Gender. Both men and women were included; however, the product value may vary depending on whether it is designed for men or women, and a dummy variable for gender was set. This variable is one for men and zero for women.
4. Results
A stepwise method was used to verify the most appropriate model for estimating the dependent variables. Table 1 presents the results of the multiple regression analysis for each product category. The coefficients of determination confirmed using the stepwise method were 0.30 for denim jacket, 0.37 for bomber jacket, 0.27 for biker jacket, 0.26 for trench coat, and 0.36 for duffel coat. Using the stepwise method, 15 factors were found to be effective explanatory variables. For denim jackets, the three elements of classical design (p < 0.01), decorative design (p < 0.01), and pattern design (p < 0.05) had a high positive influence. For the bomber jacket, the two elements of classical design (p < 0.01) and transformative design (p < 0.05) had significant positive effects, and multimaterial design (p < 0.10) showed a significant positive tendency. For bike jackets, classical design had a highly negative effect (p < 0.01), whereas decorative design had a highly positive effect (p < 0.01). Trench coats had two significant positive effects: transformative (p < 0.01) and decorative (p < 0.01) design. The duffel coat had classical design (p < 0.05), transformative design (p < 0.01), decorative design (p < 0.05), pattern design (p < 0.01), and multimaterial design (p < 0.05) as explanatory variables that had a significant positive effect.
5. Discussion and Conclusion
5.1. Interpretation of the Results
Table 2 summarizes the statistical results for the hypotheses regarding the five elements considered in fashion design. We identified the effective design elements for each product category. We found that the duffel coat positively impacted all five design elements, indicating a wide range of potential product innovations. Unlike other fashion product categories, duffel coats are not typically associated with specific brands [46]. Although denim jackets are diversified products, they ensure that the archetype of Levi Strauss & Co. is a historical symbol [47]. The typical design of the MA-1 bomber jacket is based on Alpha Industry Inc. [46], the biker jacket was developed by Schott N.Y.C. [46], and the trench coat is famous as an icon for the Burberry Group Plc [48,49]. Therefore, various brands in the duffel coat product category have ample opportunities to explore and utilize different design elements.
We then considered why different results were observed between the design elements and product categories. To improve readability, the details are provided in the Appendix A. We ultimately identified the factors that could determine whether each design element could contribute to improving the continuation of the product value. Figure 7 summarizes these factors. We propose that designers use this summary to select effective design elements for specific fashion product categories.
5.2. Implications
The emergence of the platform economy has presented numerous opportunities to achieve global sustainable development goals [50]. Digital platforms enable businesses and consumers to complete transactions without temporal or spatial constraints, providing unparalleled levels of choice and convenience. This study demonstrates the potential of using platform data to inform sustainable product innovation strategies by gaining insight into design elements that enhance the lasting value of apparel products on second-hand product trading platforms. Therefore, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of the impact of the platform economy on sustainability and identifies good practices for sustainable product innovation.
The main challenges include the lack of consensus and knowledge among designers regarding sustainable design, the lack of a design-led approach to fashion sustainability, and trade-offs with other design criteria such as aesthetic style, cost, and fashion trends [8]. This study provides insight for fashion designers to consider how different design elements affect the continuous value of their products. By incorporating these elements into their designs, they can contribute to creating sustainable fashion products that have lasting value for both consumers and the environment. Designers can refer to the summary in Figure 7 to select an effective design element for a specific fashion product category. For example, the section on classic design elements in Figure 7 shows that when designing a garment, it is necessary to innovate while maintaining the classic elements of the product to maintain the continuity of the product’s value. For example, the orange inner color is a classic design element of the MA-1 bomber jacket, and if this inner color changes, the product’s continuous value will be damaged.
Previous studies have demonstrated that design affects product value and business performance [16,31,39,51,52]. Product design also contributes to product value [37,53,54]. However, no study has sustainably reinterpreted these design elements. Companies must strike a balance between environmental concerns and business objectives [55] and improving the continuation of product value could help slow down the rate at which consumers dispose of clothing. This study examines how design elements shadow the perspective of a garment’s continued value in the secondary market, knowing that specific elements can slow down a garment’s obsolescence, thus complementing research on this aspect of sustainable fashion. The findings of this study can assist companies in selecting design elements that can sustain the value of fashion products and reduce clothing wastage. Furthermore, we found that although multimaterial designs are not considered sustainable because they are not easily recyclable, the garment can continue its life in the second-hand market if it is valuable instead of being discarded for recycling. A multimaterial design can still be consistent with sustainable fashion practices.
5.3. Limitations and Future Directions
This study has some limitations. First, we analyzed only five product categories with transparent historical backgrounds: denim jackets, bomber jackets, biker jackets, trench coats, and duffel coats. Different product categories may have different impacts on the continuation of product value, depending on their historical and innovation backgrounds. Therefore, future studies that analyze other product categories may provide new suggestions.
Second, our dataset was obtained from the Japanese mass market with a population of more than 100 million. Although we selected five popular classic coats in the Japanese market for analysis, we acknowledge that geographical and cultural factors may have influenced our results. For instance, different regions may have their own preferences for specific patterns, and religious beliefs may affect product value. Performing the same study in regions with different cultures and preferences may yield different results. Therefore, while our results represent the mass market, future studies could analyze cases in other areas regarding the five product categories used in this study.
Third, this study identified five design elements that contribute to the continuation of product value whereas in reality there is a wide selection of design elements, and there may be other design elements that have an impact on the lasting economic value of fashion products but were not identified in this study. In addition, our sample covers only certain types of fashion products or brands; therefore, the findings may be limited and not representative of other types of fashion products or brands. Therefore, we suggest that future studies involve a wider range of design elements and sample types to deepen our understanding of the factors influencing the enduring value of fashion products. By addressing these limitations and future research perspectives, future studies could provide insights and suggestions for designers to create fashion products with a higher value continuation and contribute to developing a sustainable fashion industry.
Fourth, each consumer has their own value criteria that change the product’s value. We believe that this is true even for the perceived value adopted in this case. Furthermore, there could be differences in perceived value due to customization or product characteristics. Future studies should consider the impact of these factors on product prices in the goods market.
Conceptualization, X.Z., R.M. and Y.I.; methodology, X.Z., R.M. and Y.I.; software, R.M.; validation, R.M.; formal analysis, R.M. and Y.I.; investigation, R.M. and Y.I.; resources, R.M. and Y.I.; data curation, R.M.; writing—original draft preparation, X.Z., R.M. and Y.I.; writing—review and editing, X.Z., R.M. and Y.I.; visualization, X.Z., R.M. and Y.I.; supervision, Y.I.; project administration, Y.I.; funding acquisition, Y.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Classical design elements. Example of a trench coat (photograph taken by the authors).
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Transformative design elements. Example of a biker jacket (photograph taken by the authors).
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Pattern design elements. Example of an MA-1 bomber jacket (photograph taken by the authors).
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Multimaterial design elements. Example of a bomber jacket (photograph taken by the authors).
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Decorative design elements. Example of a denim jacket (photograph taken by the authors).
Results of the stepwise method.
| Denim Jacket | Bomber Jacket | Biker Jacket | Trench Coat | Duffel Coat | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Explanatory Variables | |||||
| Classical Design | 1.40 ** (0.27) | 0.47 ** (0.16) | −0.26 ** (0.09) | 0.29 (0.18) | 0.58 * (0.27) |
| Transformative Design | 0.20 * (0.09) | 0.39 ** (0.09) | 0.66 ** (0.23) | ||
| Patterning Design | 0.44 * (0.23) | 0.70 ** (0.21) | |||
| Multimaterial Design | 0.18 † (0.09) | 0.40 * (0.20) | |||
| Decorative Design | 0.87 ** (0.2) | 0.28 ** (0.07) | 0.49 ** (0.11) | 0.52 * (0.22) | |
| Control Variables | |||||
| Material: Cotton | 0.25 * (0.10) | ||||
| Material: Polyester | −0.36 ** (0.08) | −0.27 ** (0.07) | −0.89 ** (0.18) | ||
| Material: Nylon | −0.14 (0.11) | −0.35 † (0.18) | |||
| Material: Wool | −0.24 * (0.11) | −0.16 (0.10) | 0.45 † (0.25) | ||
| Function: Batting | 0.19 * (0.08) | ||||
| Function: Fuzzing | 0.16 † (0.09) | ||||
| Design: Processed | −0.35 † (0.15) | ||||
| Size: S | 0.57 ** (0.21) | ||||
| Size: L | −0.13 † (0.07) | ||||
| Color: Black | 0.29 ** (0.09) | 0.29 ** (0.07) | |||
| Color: Red | −0.38 ** (0.14) | ||||
| Color: Blue | 0.27 ** (0.09) | 0.27 ** (0.09) | |||
| Color: Khaki | −0.81 ** (0.30) | ||||
| Color: Another | 0.30 * (0.13) | ||||
| Men | 1.40 ** (0.27) | 0.27 ** (0.09) | 0.33 ** (0.08) | 0.31 ** (0.07) | 1.00 ** (0.17) |
| Intercept | 7.22 ** (0.15) | 3.25 ** (0.10) | 3.68 ** (0.07) | 3.47 ** (0.05) | 7.24 ** (0.28) |
| Adj. R-squared | 0.30 | 0.37 | 0.27 | 0.26 | 0.36 |
Note: Standard deviations are in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, † p < 0.10.
Summary of the research results.
| Classical Design | Transformative Design | Patterning Design | Multimaterial Design | Decorative Design | Supported | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Denim Jacket | + | n.s | + | n.s | + | 3/5 |
| Bomber Jacket | + | + | n.s | + | n.s | 3/5 |
| Biker Jacket | − | n.s | n.s | n.s | + | 1/5 |
| Trench Coat | n.s | + | n.s | n.s | + | 2/5 |
| Duffel Coat | + | + | + | + | + | 5/5 |
| Supported | 3/5 | 3/5 | 2/5 | 2/5 | 4/5 |
Appendix A. Interpretation of the Results on Each Design Element
Appendix A.1. Classical Design Element
We confirmed that three product categories—denim jacket, bomber jacket, and duffel coat—had a significant positive impact on classical design elements. However, we confirmed a non-significant effect of the trench coat and a significant negative effect of the biker jacket. These differences may be due to the history of fashion innovation in product categories. Classical design elements represent functional design. Although some functional designs have lost their original role, they remain a bridge between human cultures [
Appendix A.2. Transformative Design Element
Transformative design is an aesthetic element that represents an unconventional design structure. Among the transformative design elements, we confirmed a significant positive influence on the MA-1 bomber jacket, trench coat, and duffel coat product categories. Transformative design influences promotions that express the brand’s unconventional positioning and the quality of the sewing techniques [
Appendix A.3. Pattern Design Element
Pattern design is an aesthetic element used to enhance a product’s appearance [
Appendix A.4. Multimaterial Design Element
Multimaterial design is an aesthetic element that refers to combining different materials. We confirmed a significantly positive effect only for MA-1 bomber jacket and Duffel coats in the multimaterial design elements. Multimaterial design elements destroy the conceptually evaluated classical principles of structures [
Appendix A.5. Decorative Design Element
Decorative design elements were chosen to represent symbolism. Decorative design elements provide designs related to symbolic shapes and colors as signs of access to new products [
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1 Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 730-0053, Japan;
2 Faculty of Economics, Hosei University, Tokyo 194-0298, Japan