1. Introduction
Apiaceae (syn. Umbelliferae) is one of the largest angiosperm families. It includes 300 genera (3000 species) globally and 100 genera (614 species) in China [1]. Apiaceae plants have been widely used in healthcare, nutrition, the food industry, and other fields [2]. Currently, 55 genera (230 species) of Apiaceae plants have been used as medicinal plants, and over 20 species have been widely used as traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) [3]. Extensive studies have demonstrated that Apiaceae medicinal plants (AMPs) present a variety of pharmacological properties for the treatment of central nervous system, cardiovascular, and respiratory system diseases, amongst others [1,4]. These pharmacological activities are largely associated with metabolites such as polysaccharides, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids (simple phenylpropanoids and coumarins), flavonoids, and polyene alkynes [1,5,6].
In China, Apiaceae plants have been primarily used as traditional medicines for relaxing tendons, activating blood, relieving superficial wounds, treating colds, etc. [1,2]. For example, rhizomatous and whole plants are mainly used for the treatment of common colds, coughs, asthma, rheumatic arthralgia, ulcers, and pyogenes infections; fruits are mainly used for regulating vital energy, promoting digestion, relieving abdominal pain, and treating parasites [1,2].
The occurrence of bolting and flowering (BF) plays a critical role in the transition from vegetative growth to reproductive development in the plant life cycle [7]. However, BF significantly reduces the accumulation of metabolites in vegetative organs, which ultimately leads to the lignification of rhizomes and/or roots such as sugar beet [8], lettuce [9], and Chinese cabbage [10]. In particular, it common that BF significantly reduces the yield and quality of the rhizomatous AMPs [11]. Extensive studies have demonstrated that BF is regulated by both internal factors (e.g., germplasm resource, seedling size, and plant age) and external factors (e.g., vernalization, photoperiodism, and environmental stresses) [12]. To date, the BF of most rhizomatous AMPs have not been effectively controlled [11,13].
In order to form a comprehensive understanding of the current status of AMPs in China, herein, the progress on traditional use, phytochemistry, BF, and controlling approaches are summarized. This review will provide useful references for the efficient cultivation and quality improvement of AMPs.
2. Materials and Methods
Information on AMPs was attained using scientific databases (i.e., PubMed, Web of Science, Springer, and CNKI), using the following keywords: Apiaceae plant, traditional use, phytochemistry, BF, and lignification. Additional information was collected from ethnobotanical studies that mainly focused on the “Flora of China” and local classical literature, such as “Divine Husbandman’s Classic of the Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing)”, “Compendium of Materia Medica”, “Illustrated Book on Plants”, “Collection of National Chinese Herbal Medicine”, and “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020). The names of all plants correspond to the database Catalogue of Life China. Chemical structures were drawn using ChemDraw 21.0.0 software.
3. Apiaceae Medicinal Plants (AMPs)
Apiaceae plants have been traditionally used as medicines in China for ca. 2400 years (Figure 1). In 390–278 BC, three Apiaceae plants, including Angelica dahurica, Ligusticum chuanxiong, and Cnidium monnieri, were first recorded as medicines in “Sorrow after Departure” [1,2]. With the progress of Chinese civilization, ca. 100 Apiaceae plants were historically recorded as medicines. Specifically, 12 AMPs (e.g., Angelica decursiva, Bupleurum chinense, and Centella asiatica) were recorded in the known herbal text of China, the “Divine Husbandman’s Classic of the Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing)” in 1st and 2nd century AD [14]. In 1578 and 1848, 24 and 31 AMPs were respectively recorded in the “Compendium of Materia Medica and Illustrated Book on Plants” [15]. In the 21st century, the number of AMPs has been continually increasing, up to 93 species recorded in the “Flora of China” in 2002 [16], and 96 species in the “Collection of National Chinese Herbal Medicine” in 2014 [17]. In recent years, 22 species were recorded in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” [18]. Specifically, 18 species are used with rhizomes and/or roots (Table 1).
4. Classification of AMPs Species
To our best knowledge, a total of 228 AMPs used as TCMs were collected from previously published studies and books (Table 1). Based on the traditionally used medicinal parts, the 228 AMPs were categorized into six classes, including 51 species (21 genera) used with the whole plants (i.e., rhizome and/or root, stem, and leaf), 184 species (44 genera) used with rhizomes and/or roots, 5 species (5 genera) used with stems, 9 species (8 genera) used with leaves, 17 species (14 genera) used with fruits, and 1 species (single genus) used with seeds.
Specifically, the 51 species (21 genera) used with the whole plants include Anethum, Anthriscus, Apium, Bupleurum, Centella, Conium, Coriandrum, Cryptotaenia, Eryngium, Ferula, Foeniculum, Hydrocotyle, Oenanthe, Peucedanum, Pimpinella, Pleurospermum, Pternopetalum, Sanicula, Sium, Spuriopimpinella, and Torilis genera. In particular, Sanicula (e.g., S. astrantiifolia, S. caerulescens, S. chinensis), Hydrocotyle (e.g., H. himalaica, H. hookeri, and H. nepalensis), and Pimpinella (e.g., P. candolleana, P. coriacea, and P. diversifolia) genera plants are usually used as whole plants.
The 184 species (44 genera) used with the rhizomes and/or roots, which make up the majority of AMPs, include Angelica, Anthriscus, Apium, Archangelica, Bupleurum, Carum, Changium, Chuanminshen, Cicuta, Cnidium, Conioselinum, Daucus, Eriocycla, Ferula, Foeniculum, Glehnia, Heracleum, Hymenidium, Kitagawia, Levisticum, Libanotis, Ligusticopsis, Ligusticum, Meeboldia, Nothosmyrnium, Oenanthe, Osmorhiza, Ostericum, Peucedanum, Phlojodicarpus, Physospermopsis, Pimpinella, Pleurospermum, Pternopetalum, Sanicula, Saposhnikovia, Selinum, Semenovia, Seseli, Seselopsis, Spuriopimpinella, Tongoloa, Torilis, and Vicatia genera. Specifically, Angelica (e.g., A. biserrata, A. dahurica, and A. sinensis), Bupleurum (e.g., B. bicaule, B. chinense, and B. scorzonerifolium), and Ligusticum (L. chuanxiong, L. jeholense, and L. sinense) genera plants are usually used as rhizomes and/or roots.
The 5 species (5 genera) used with the stems include Aegopodium (A. alpestre), Coriandrum (C. sativum), Foeniculum (F. vulgare), Ligusticum (L. chuanxiong), and Oenanthe (O. javanica); the 9 species (8 genera) used with the leaves include Aegopodium (A. alpestre), Anethum (A. graveolens), Angelica (A. morii), Anthriscus (A. nemorosa and A. sylvestris), Carum (C. carvi), Daucus (D. carota), Foeniculum (F. vulgare), and Ligusticum (L. chuanxiong); the 17 species (14 genera) used with the fruits include: Ammi (A. majus), Carum (C. buriaticum and C. carvi), Cnidium (C. monnieri), Coriandrum (C. sativum), Cuminum (C. cyminum), Cyclorhiza (C. peucedanifolia), Daucus (D. carota L. and D. carota var. Carota), Pimpinella (P. anisum), Trachyspermum (T. ammi), and Visnaga (V. daucoides) genera; the single genera used with the seeds is Ferula (F. bungeana) (Table 1).
5. Traditional Uses
As is shown in Table 1, distinct traditional uses of the 228 AMPs were recorded. Based on their clinical agents, a total of 79 traditional uses are enriched, with 40 species contributing to the treatment of relieving pain, 36 species to the treatment of dispelling wind; and 21 species to the treatment of eliminating dampness (Figure 2).
Moreover, the AMPs were also widely used as “ethnodrugs” for ethnic minorities in China. For example, Carum carvi was used as Tibetan medicine for the treatment of dispelling wind and eliminating dampness, as well as treating cat fever and joint pain [86]; Trachyspermum ammi [236] was used as Uygur medicine for the treatment of eliminating cold damp, dispelling coldness, and promoting digestion; Angelica acutiloba was used in Korean medicine for the treatment of strengthening the spleen, enriching blood, stopping bleeding, and promoting coronary circulation [237]; Angelica sinensis was used as medicine for the Tujia minority for the treatment of enriching the blood, treating dysmenorrheal, and relaxing the bowel [238]; and Chuanminshen violaceum was used as a geo-authentic medicine of Sichuan province for the treatment of moistening the lungs, treating phlegm, and nourishing the spleen and stomach [89].
Meanwhile, AMPs combined with other herbs have also been applied for thousands of years [239]. For example, the Decoction of Notopterygium for Rheumatism is a famous Chinese prescription and is composed of Notopterygium incisum, Angelica biserrata, Ligusticum sinense, Eryngium foetidum, and Ligusticum chuanxiong, etc.; it has been widely used for the treatment of exopathogenic wind-cold, rheumatism, headache, and pantalgia [94]. The Xinyisan that is composed of Yulania liliiflora, Actaea cimicifuga, Angelica dahurica, Eryngium foetidum, Ligusticum sinense, etc., has been widely used for the treatment of deficiency of pulmonary qi and nasal obstruction due to wind-cold pathogens and damp-heat in the lung channel [94,168]. The Shiquan Dabu Wan of Angelica sinensis that is recorded in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” has been mainly used for the treatment of pallor, fatigability, and palpitations [240]. The Juanbi Tang of Notopterygium incisum and Angelica biserrata that is recorded in “Medical Words” (Qing dynasty) has been mainly used for treatment of arthralgia due to wind cold-dampness [121].
6. Modern Pharmacological Uses
Modern pharmacological research on the 228 AMPs is summarized in Table 1. Based on the pharmacological effects, a total of 62 modern uses are identified (Figure 3), with 36 species showing anti-inflammatory activity, 20 species showing antioxidant activity, and 16 species showing antitumor activity. In addition, other modern uses are also identified, such as antitumor, bacteriostatic, and analgesic. These modern pharmaceutical properties have been demonstrated to be associated with bioactive metabolites, and several metabolites have been found to be co-existent in the TCMs [241,242].
Specifically, sesquiterpene-coumarin, such as (3′S, 5′S, 8′R, 9′S, 10′R)-kellerin, gummosin, galbanic acid, and methyl galbanate from Ferula sinkiangensis resin, showed anti-neuroinflammatory effects and might be a potential natural therapeutic agent for Alzheimer’s disease [243]. The supercritical carbon dioxide extracts from Apium graveolens showed antibacterial effects, with the highest inhibitory activity against Bacillus cereus [244,245]. In vitro, the antitumor activity of AMPs have been identified; for example, the ferulin B and C in Ferula ferulaeoides rhizomes could restrain the multiplication of HepG2 stomach cancer cell lines, and 2,3-dihydro-7-hydroxyl-2R*, 3R*-dimethyl-2-[4,8-dimethyl-3(E),7-nonadienyl]-furo [3,2-c] coumarin could restrain the proliferation of HepG2, MCF-7, and C6 cancer cell lines [107,246]. In addition, the osthole in Angelica biserrata could restrain the multiplication of human gastric cancer cell lines MKN-45 and BGC-823, human lung adenocarcinoma cell line A549, human mammary carcinoma cell line MCF-7, and human colon carcinoma cell line LOVO [247]. The antioxidative activity of AMPs has been also identified; for example, the imperatorin, oxypeucedanin hydrate, and bergaptol in Angelica dahurica exhibited DPPH scavenging activity [30], hydromethanolic extracts from Pimpinella anisum exhibited free radical scavenging activity [248], and water-soluble polysaccharides in Chuanminshen violaceum scavenged DPPH, hydroxyl, and superoxide anion radicals [91].
7. Phytochemistry
As is shown in Table 1, hundreds of bioactive metabolites have been identified from the 228 AMPs [1,249]. Based on their chemical structures, these metabolites can be categorized into five main classes: (1) polysaccharides, (2) alkaloids, (3) phenylpropanoids, (4) flavonoids, and (5) terpenoids (Figure 4).
Among the 22 AMPs recorded in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” [18], 18 secondary metabolites in the 17 AMPs (e.g., Angelica biserrata, Bupleurum chinense DC., and Centella asiatica) (Figure 5) were described as quality control indicators, which include: 10 phenylpropanoids (i.e., osthole, columbianadin, imperatorin, isoimperatorin, nodakenin, ferulic acid, trans-anethole, notopterol, praeruptorin A, and praeruptorin B), 4 terpenoids (i.e., saikosaponin a, saikosaponin d, asiaticoside, and madecassoside), 2 chromones (i.e., prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 5-O-methylvisammioside), and 2 phthalides (i.e., ligustilide and levistilide A); a specific quality marker has not been reported for the other 5 AMPs (e.g., Changium smyrnioides, Daucus carota L., and Glehnia littoralis) (Table 2).
7.1. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are the largest components of biomass and account for ca. 90% of the carbohydrates in plants [250]. Studies have demonstrated that polysaccharides in medicinal plants are indispensable bioactive compounds, presenting uniquely pharmacological effects such as immunomodulatory, hypoglycemic, antitumor, anti-diabetic, and antioxidant effects, amongst others, with few side effects or adverse drug reactions [251,252]. To date, polysaccharides in the 228 AMPs have also been identified, showing multiple pharmacological effects. For example, polysaccharides in Angelica sinensis present hematopoietic, antitumor, and liver protection effects [239,253]; polysaccharides in Angelica dahurica protect spleen lymphocytes, natural killer cells, and procoagulants [254,255]; and polysaccharides in Bupleurum chinense and Bupleurum smithii present the effect of macrophage modulation, kidney protection, and inflammatory alleviation [256,257,258].
7.2. Alkaloids
About 27,000 alkaloids presenting as water-soluble salts of organic acids, esters, and combined with tannins or sugars have been found in plants [259]. Many alkaloids are valuable medicinal agents that can be utilized to treat various diseases, including malaria, diabetes, cancer, cardiac dysfunction, blood clotting–related diseases, etc. [260,261,262]. Alkaloids in the 228 AMPs mainly exist in the Ligusticum, Apium, Conium, and Cuminum genera [249]. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that alkaloids in Ligusticum chuanxiong show the activity of inhibiting myocardial fibrosis, protecting ischemic myocardium, and relieving cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury [151,263,264]. A novel alkaloid 2-pentylpiperidine known as conmaculatin in Conium maculatum shows strong peripheral and central antinociceptive activity [265]. Some alkaloids have been identified to show antidepressant activity, such as berberine in Berberis aristata, strictosidine acid in Psychotria myriantha, and Anonaine in Annona cherimolia; these could be explored as an emerging therapeutic alternative for the treatment of depression.
7.3. Phenylpropanoids
Phenylpropanoids are a large class of secondary metabolites biosynthesized from amino acids, phenylalanine, and tyrosine [266]. Over 8000 aromatic metabolites of the phenylpropanoids have been identified in plants. These include simple phenylpropanoids (propenyl benzene, phenylpropionic acid, and phenylpropyl alcohol), coumarins, lignins, lignans, and flavonoids [267].
7.3.1. Simple Phenylpropanoids
To date, limited simple phenylpropanoids have been identified from AMPs, including three phenylpropanoids (trans-isoelemicin, sarisan, and trans-isomyristicin) in the roots of Ligusticum mutellina [268]. Ferulic acid, one of the phenylpropionic acids, is an important bioactive metabolite of AMPs; it mainly exists in Angelica, Ligusticum, Ferula, and Pleurospermum genera [239,269,270]. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated that the ferulic acid in Angelica sinensis shows strong properties in inhibiting platelet aggregation, increasing coronary blood flow, and stimulating smooth muscle [271,272]; the ferulic acid in Angelica acutiloba shows antidiabetic, immunostimulant, antiinfammatory, antimicrobial, anti-arrhythmic, and antithrombotic activity [273]; and the ferulic acid in Ligusticum tenuissimum shows anti-melanogenic and anti-oxidative effects [274].
7.3.2. Coumarins
Coumarins are the most widespread in 20 genera of AMPs (e.g., Angelica, Bupleurum, and Peucedanum) and mainly include simple coumarins, pyranocoumarins, and furocoumarins [56,275,276]. In recent years, distinct coumarins have been identified from AMPs, such as 99 coumarins in Ferula [277], 116 coumarins in Angelica decursiva and Peucedanum praeruptorum [180], and 9 coumarins in Angelica dahurica [278]. Furthermore, 8 coumarins were selected as quality markers, including osthole (1) in Angelica biserrata and Cnidium monnieri; columbianadin (2) in Angelica biserrata; imperatorin (3) in Angelica dahurica and Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi; isoimperatorin (4) in Angelica dahurica, Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi, Notopterygium franchetii, and Notopterygium incisum; nodakenin (5) in Angelica decursiva, Notopterygium franchetii, and Notopterygium incisum; notopterol (8) in Notopterygium franchetii and Notopterygium incisum; and praeruptorin A (9) and praeruptorin B (10) in Peucedanum praeruptorum (see Table 2 and Figure 5) [18].
To date, various biological activities of coumarins have been demonstrated, including antifungal, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-cancerous, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, anti-filarial, enzyme inhibitory, antiaflatoxigenic, analgesic, antioxidant, and oestrogenic [279,280,281,282]. For example, coumarins are recognized as the main bioactive constituents in Peucedani genus and play critical roles in relieving cough and asthma, strengthening heart function, as well as preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases such as nodakenin, (+)-praeruptorin B, and praeruptorin C [283]; imperatorin oxypeucedanin hydrate, xanthotoxol, bergaptol, 5-methoxy-8-hydroxypsoralen, isoimperatorin, phelloptorin, and pabularinone in Angelica dahurica exhibit moderate DPPH scavenging activity, strong ABTS·+ scavenging activity, and significant inhibition on HepG2 cells, which could be explored as new and potential natural antioxidants and cancer prevention agents [30]; pabulenol and osthol extracts from Angelica genuflexa show anti-platelet and anti-coagulant components [38]; and decursinol angelate in Angelica gigas shows platelet aggregation and blood coagulation activity [38].
7.4. Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a group of the most abundant secondary metabolites in plants [266]. Generally, flavonoids can be further categorized into eight subgroups, including flavones (e.g., apigenin, luteolin, and baicalein), flavonols (e.g., kaempferol, quercetin, and myricetin), flavanones (e.g., naringenin, hesperitin, and liquiritigenin), flavanonols (e.g., dihydrokaempferol, dihydromyricetin, and dihydroquercetin), isoflavones (e.g., daidzein, purerarin, and peterocarpin), aurones, anthocyanidins, and proanthocyanidins [284,285,286]. In recent years, flavonoids have been identified from AMPs, such as 6 flavonoids (e.g., luteolin, isoquercitrin, and rutin) in Ferula [107], 12 flavonoids (e.g., quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3,7-di-O-rhamnoside, quercetin-3-O-arabinoside) in Bupleurum [287], and 18 flavonoids (e.g., rutin, quercetin, and quercitrin) in Hydrocotyle [135].
To date, various biological activities of flavonoids have been demonstrated, including antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, antiobesity, and cardioprotective [284,288]. For example, the apigenin in Apium graveolens shows anticancer properties [21], flavonoids in Pimpinella diversifolia DC., Anthriscus sylvestris, and Sanicula astrantiifolia show antioxidant effects [197,289], and quercetin and its metabolites show vasodilator effects, with selectivity toward the resistance vessels [290].
7.5. Terpenoids
About 25,000 terpenoids have been reported in plants; they are diverse secondary metabolites containing three subgroups, including monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, and triterpenoids [291]. To date, terpenoids have been also identified in AMPs, such as 4 terpenoids (e.g., angelicoidenol, pregnenolone, and β-sitosterol) in Pleurospermum [142], 75 terpenoids (e.g., myrcene, farnesene, and xiongterpene) in Ligusticum [141], 109 terpenoids (e.g., nerolidol, guaiol, and ferulactone A) in Ferula [277], and 13 triterpenoids (e.g., ranuncoside, oleanane, and barrigenol) in Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. [136]. Specifically, saikosaponin triterpenes constitute the main class of secondary metabolites in the genus Bupleurum, with more than 90 saponins (e.g., saikosaponin a, b, and c) isolated [64,292].
Studies have found that terpenoids possess various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-fibrosis, antitumor, anti-Alzheimer’s disease, and anti-depression activities [293,294]. For example, the xiongterpene in Ligusticum chuanxiong shows insecticide effects [151], the asiaticoside in Centella asiatica shows antitumor properties [295], and the saikosaponin d in Bupleurum chinense DC. and Bupleurum scorzonerifolium show the effects of reducing blood glucose, inhibiting inflammation, and reducing insulin resistance [296].
7.6. Other Compounds
Chromones and phthalides also exist in AMPs and show pharmacological properties. Specifically, phthalides (e.g., ligustilide, n-butylidenephthalide, and Z-ligustilide) in Angelica sinensis show the effect of inhibiting vasodilation, decreasing platelet aggregation, as well as exerting analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-proliferative effects [239]; butylphthalide in Ligusticum sinense shows anti-inflammatory and antithrombus effects, dilates blood vessels, and improves brain microcirculation and anti-myocardial ischemia [155].
In terms of chromones, 3 chromones (i.e., 5 thydroxy 2 [(angebyloxy) mehyI] fuan [3, 2′: 6, 7] chrmone, angeliticin A, and noreugenin) in Angelica polymorpha [297], 10 chromones (e.g., cnidimoside A, cnidimol B, and peucenin) in Cnidiummonnieri (L.) Cuss. [93], and 22 chromones (e.g., edebouriellol, hamaudol, and 3′(R)-(+)-hamaudol) in Saposhnikovia divaricate [218] have been identified. Studies have found that two chromones 3′S-(-)-O-acetylhamaudol and (±)-hamaudol in Angelica morii show the effect of inhibiting Ca2+ influx of vascular smooth muscle [298], prim-O-glucosylcimifugin and 5-O-methylvisammioside show antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory effects [299], and chromones in Bupleurum multinerve show analgesic effects [300].
8. Effect of Bolting and Flowering (BF) on Yield and Quality
Previous studies have repeatedly emphasized that BF reduces the yield and quality of plants, especially in rhizomatous medicinal plants [11]. Here, a total of 38 rhizomatous plants that have been reported in the 228 AMPs are associated with BF (Table 3). Based on the effect degree of BF on the yield and quality, 38 rhizomatous AMPs belonging to 17 genera can be categorized into 3 classes: (1) BF significantly affects the yield and quality of 14 AMPs (i.e., Angelica acutiloba, Angelica biserrata, Angelica dahurica, Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi, Angelica decursiva, Angelica polymorpha, Angelica sinensis, Daucus carota, Heracleum hemsleyanum, Heracleum rapula, Libanotis iliensis, Libanotis seseloides, Peucedanum praeruptorum, and Saposhnikovia divaricata), and their rhizomes and/or roots are wholly lignified and cannot be used for clinical application; (2) BF affects the yield of 11 AMPs (i.e., Angelica gigas, Bupleurum chinense, Bupleurum scorzonerifolium, Changium smyrnioides, Chuanminshen violaceum, Glehnia littoralis, Ligusticum chuanxiong, Ligusticum jeholense, Ligusticum sinense, Notopterygium franchetii, and Notopterygium incisum), though their rhizomes or roots can be used as medicine to some extent; (3) BF has no significant effect on the yield and quality of 13 AMPs (i.e., Angelica sylvestris, Cicuta virosa, Ferula ferulaeoides, Ferula fukanensis, Ferula lehmannii, Ferula olivacea, Ferula sinkiangensis, Ferula teterrima, Levisticum officinale, Libanotis buchtormensis, Libanotis lancifolia, Libanotis spodotrichoma, and Pimpinella candolleana), and their rhizomes or roots can be used as medicine (Figure 6).
For example, for class (1) after BF, there was a 8.3- and 16.1-fold reduction of dry weight and quality marker ferulic acid content in Angelica sinensis [301] and a 1.5- and 1.5-fold reduction of dry weight and quality marker isoimperatorin content in Angelica dahurica [302]. For class (2), there was a 1.34-fold reduction of saikosaponinsands, while no significant change of dry weight in Bupleurum chinense was seen [303,304]; and a 2.0- and 1.7-fold reduction of dry weigh and polysaccharide content in Changium smyrnioides [305]. For class (3), there was no reduction of the yield and quality of the 13 AMPs at the harvest stages [19].
9. Approaches to Control BF
Generally, most Apiaceae plants are “low-temperature and long-day” perennial herbs; in other words, the plants must experience vernalization (i.e., an extended period of cool weather at 0 to 10 °C) and long days (>12 h daylight) to induce BF. Examples include Angelica sinensis [325], Daucus carota [326], and Coriandrum sativum [327].
Table 4 shows the approaches to inhibit BF of 24 AMPs. For example, the bolting rate of Angelica sinensis can be significantly decreased by planting the green stem cultivar (Mingui 2) instead of the purple stem cultivar (Mingui 1) [328], selecting smaller seedlings (i.e., root-shoulder diameter <0.55 cm) instead of larger seedlings [329,330], storing the seedlings at freezing temperature (i.e., <0 °C) during the overwinter stage [325], shading the plants under sunshade (i.e., >40%) during growth stage [331], and providing the plants with good growth conditions (e.g., plant intensity, nutrient and water balance) [332]. The bolting rate of Angelica dahurica can be significantly decreased through planting pure breeds [333], selecting immature seeds for seeding [308], increasing potassic fertilizer while decreasing nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers [334], and planting using standard techniques [335]. The bolting rate of Saposhnikovia divaricata can also be significantly decreased by controlling the sunshade [336], sowing date [337], and planting density [338], and preventing excessive growth [336].
To inhibit the occurrence of BF in AMPs, several measures can be used, including breeding new cultivars, controlling the seedling age and size to delay the transition from vegetative growth to flowering, storing seedlings at freezing temperatures to avoid vernalization, growing the plants under sunshade to avoid long-day photoperiodism, and planting with standard techniques to reduce pests and diseases (Figure 7).
10. The Mechanism of BF Inducing the Rhizome Lignification
Extensive experiments have demonstrated that BF induces the lignification of fleshy rhizomes and enhances the degradation of metabolites [11,13,328]. Studies on anatomical structures reveal that the ratio of secondary phloem to secondary xylem respectively changes from 2:1 to 1:10 and 2/5–1/2 to 1/2–3/4 for the rhizomes of Angelica sinensis and Angelica dahurica before and after BF; meanwhile, the number of secretory cells producing essential oils significantly decreased [368,369]. Studies have found that the Early Bolting In Short Day (EBS) acts as a negative transcriptional regulator, preventing premature flowering of Arabidopsis thaliana, and co-enrichment of a subset of EBS-associated genes with H3K4me3, H3K27me3, and Polycomb repressor complex 2 has been observed [370]; a potential genetic resource for radish late-bolting breeding with introgression of the RsVRN1In-536 insertion allele into the early-bolting genotype could contribute to delayed bolting time of Raphanus sativus [371]; and peroxidases (PRXs) involved in lignin monomer biosynthesis were found to be down-regulated in Peucedanum praeruptorum at the bolting stage [372].
As is known, lignin biosynthesis belongs to the general phenylpropanoid pathway, which starts from phenylalanine and is catalyzed by a series of enzymes [13,373]. Specifically, phenylalanine is catalyzed to form p-Coumaroyl CoA sequentially through the three enzymes phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL), cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), and 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (4CL). Lignin biosynthesis is synthesized via three sub-pathways, including the following: (1) lignins are catalyzed to from p-Coumaroyl CoA sequentially through the three enzymes cinnamoyl-CoA reductases (CCR), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenases (CAD), and laccases (LACs), and then coniferyl aldehyde is catalyzed to from p-Coumaroyl CoA sequentially through the four enzymes hydroxycinnamoyl shikimate/quinate transferase (HCT), p-coumarate 3-hydroxylase (C3H), caffeoyl-CoA 3-O-methyltransferase (CCOMT), and CCR; (2) lignins are catalyzed to from coniferyl aldehyde sequentially through the two enzymes CAD and LAC; (3) lignins are catalyzed to from coniferyl aldehyde sequentially through the three enzymes ferulate 5-hydroxylase (F5H), caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase (COMT), and LACs (Figure 8).
Although lignin biosynthesis has been depicted, studies on the mechanism of BF inducing rhizome lignification are still limited. To date, the mechanism of BF affecting Angelica sinensis has been revealed, with the expression level of genes (e.g., PAL1, 4CLs, HCT, CAD1, and LACs) significantly upregulated at the stem-node forming and elongating stage compared with the stem-node pre-differentiation stage, leading to the reduction of accumulation of secondary metabolites (i.e., ferulic acid and flavonoids) [13].
11. Conclusions and Future Aspects
In this review, we summarized the history of AMPs as TCMs, the classification of AMPs species, their traditional use, modern pharmacological use, and phytochemistry; the effect of BF on yield and quality, approaches to control BF, and the mechanisms of BF, inducing rhizome lignification. Although ca. 228 AMPs, 79 traditional uses, 62 modern uses, and 5 main kinds of metabolites have been recorded, the potential properties remain to be exploited. Although BF significantly reduces the yield and quality of AMPs, effective measures to inhibit BF have not been applied in the field, and the mechanisms of BF have not been systemically revealed for most AMPs. Thus, in order to effectively control the BF of AMPs to improve their quality and yield, on the one hand, standard cultivation techniques of AMPs should be applied; on the other hand, new cultivars should be developed by modern biotechnology such as the CRISPR/Cas9 system.
M.L. (Meiling Li) collected and analyzed the references, drew the chemical structures, and wrote the manuscript; M.L. (Min Li) checked the classification and traditional use of Apiaceae medicinal plants; L.W. checked the language and modern pharmacological use; M.L. (Mengfei Li): conceptualization, methodology, supervision, writing—review and editing; J.W.: conceptualization and project administration. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
Not applicable.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Footnotes
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Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Core structures of five different bioactive compounds identified from the 228 AMPs.
![View Image - Figure 5. Structures of the 18 quality markers from the 22 AMPs in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020) [18].](https://media.proquest.com/media/hms/THUM/10/8tjuR?_a=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%2FyAgD6AgFZggMDV2ViigMcQ0lEOjIwMjUwNTEzMTgwNzA0MzUzOjg4OTAyNQ%3D%3D&_s=wFcHgajhSFNsRhzKsGBFxon%2B6Ig%3D "View Image - Figure 5. Structures of the 18 quality markers from the 22 AMPs in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020) [18].")
Enlarge this image.Figure 5. Structures of the 18 quality markers from the 22 AMPs in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020) [18].
Enlarge this image.Figure 6. Cluster of the 38 rhizomatous AMPs affected by bolting and flowering (BF). The red color indicates that BF significantly affects the yield and quality; the yellow color indicates that BF affects the yield, though the rhizomes or roots can be used as medicine to some extent; and the green color indicates that BF has no significant effect on the yield and quality. a: Angelica, b: Ferula, c: Libanotis, d: Ligusticum, e: Heracleum, f: Notopterygium, g: Bupleurum, h: Changium, i: Peucedanum, j: Saposhnikovia, k: Glehnia, l: Cicuta, m: Daucus, n: Levisticum, o: Anthriscus, p: Chuanminshen, and q: Pimpinella.
Enlarge this image.Figure 8. Schematic representation of biosynthetic pathways of lignins. Abbreviations: PAL, phenylalanine ammonia lyase; C4H, cinnamate 4-hydroxylase; 4CL, 4-coumarate-CoA ligase; HCT, hydroxycinnamoyl shikimate/quinate transferase; C3H, p-coumarate 3-hydroxylase; CCOMT, caffeoyl-CoA 3-O-methyltransferase; CCR, cinnamoyl-CoA reductases; CADs, cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenases; LACs, laccases; F5H, ferulate 5-hydroxylase; COMT, caffeic acid 3-O-methyltransferase. The green color indicates the common phenylpropanoid pathway of phenylpropanoids, and the red color indicates the lignin biosynthetic sub-pathway. The ①, ② and ③ means different sub-pathways of lignin biosynthesis.
The classification, traditional use, modern pharmacological use, and main metabolites of the 228 AMPs.
| No. | Plant Species | Local Name in Chinese | Parts of Plant Used | Traditional Use | Modern Pharmacological Use | Main Metabolites | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Aegopodium alpestre Ledeb. | Xiaoyeqin | Stems and leaves | Dispelling wind, relieving pain, and treating influenza | Treatment of rheumatic diseases, obesity, and hypotensive | Apiole, undecane, and limonene | [ |
| 2 | Ammi majus L. | Daamiqin | Fruits | Treatment of vitiligo | \ | Furanocoumarins | [ |
| 3 | Anethum graveolens L. | Shiluo | Fruits, leaves, or whole plant | Treatment of bladder inflammation, liver diseases, and insomnia | Antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant | Alkaloid, terpenoids, and flavonoids | [ |
| 4 | Angelica acutiloba (Siebold & Zucc.) Kitag. | Dongdanggui or ribendanggui | Roots | Treatment of menoxenia and anemia | Hemogenic, analgesic, and sedative activities | Ferulic acid, ligustilide, and angelicide | [ |
| 5 | Angelica amurensis Schischk. | Heishuidanggui or chaoxiandanggui | Roots | \ | \ | α-pinene, limonene, and sabinene | [ |
| 6 | Angelica anomala Avé-Lall. | Xiayedanggui or yixingdanggui | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor | Isoimperatorin, umbelliferone, and adenosine | [ |
| 7 | Angelica apaensis R. H. Shan & C. C. Yuan | Faluohai or abadanggui | Roots | Relieving pain, relieving cough and asthma | Bacteriostat, anti-inflammatory | Oxypeucedanin, isoimperatorin, and oxypeucedanin hydrate | [ |
| 8 | ** Angelica biserrata (R. H. Shan & C. C. Yuan) C. C. Yuan & R. H. Shan | Duhuo or maodanggui | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant | Coumarins osthole, columbianadin, and volatile oils | [ |
| 9 | Angelica cartilaginomarginata var. Foliosa C. C. Yuan & R. H. Shan | Shangaoben | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 10 | ** Angelica dahurica (Fisch. Ex Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook. F. Ex Franch. & Sav. | Baizhi | Roots | Treatment of acne, erythema, and headache | Anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, and antitumor | Scopoletin and psoralen | [ |
| 11 | ** Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi | Hangbaizhi | Roots | Treatment of headache, toothache, abscess, and furunculosis | Estrogenic, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory | Isoimperatorin, imperatorin, and phellopterin | [ |
| 12 | Angelica dahurica var. Formosana (H. Boissieu) Yen | Taiwanduhuo | Roots | \ | Anti-staphylococca | Falcarindiol | [ |
| 13 | ** Angelica decursiva (Miq.) Franch. & Sav. | Zihuaqianhu | Roots | A remedy for thick phlegm, asthma, and upper respiratory tract infections | Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential | Decursin, decursidin, and nodakenetin | [ |
| 14 | Angelica gigas Nakai | Chaoxiandanggui | Roots | Treatment of dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and menopause | Anti-platelet effects | Decursin and decursinol angelate | [ |
| 15 | Angelica laxifoliata Diels | Shuyedanggui | Roots | Dispelling wind and relieving pain | Treatment of wind-damp pain, lumbus, and knees | Angelicin, β-sitosterol, and laxifolin | [ |
| 16 | Angelica megaphylla Diels | Dayedanggui | Roots | Used as Angelica sinensis | Used as A. Sinensis | Ferulic acid, ligustilide, and angelol | [ |
| 17 | Angelica morii Hayata | Fushen | Roots and leaves | Treatment of spleen and stomach, cold cough, and toothache | Used for diarrhea caused by deficiency of spleen and for cough caused by weakness and chill | Imperatorin, isoimperatorin, and phellopterin | [ |
| 18 | Angelica nitida H. Wolff | Qinghaidanggui | Roots | Nourishing the blood, regulating menstrual disorder, and relieving pain | \ | Isoimperatorin, imperatorin, and cnidilin | [ |
| 19 | Angelica polymorpha Maxim. | Guaiqin or shanqincai | Roots | Dispelling wind and relieving pain | Treatment of stomachache | Coumarins, sesquiterpenoids, and alkaloids | [ |
| 20 | ** Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | Danggui | Roots | Nourishing the blood, regulating menstrual disorder, and relieving pain | Cardio-cerebrovascular, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant | Ferulic acid, alkylphthalides, and polysaccharides | [ |
| 21 | Angelica sinensis var. Wilsonii | Emeidanggui | Roots | Used as Angelica sinensis, relieving pain | Used as Angelica sinensis | Isoimperatorin, coumarin, and oxypeucedanin | [ |
| 22 | Angelica sylvestris L. | Lindanggui | Roots | Relieves rheumatism and sweating, provides detoxification | \ | Cnidilide, sedanenolide, and ligustilide | [ |
| 23 | Angelica tsinlingensis K. T. Fu | Qinlingdanggui | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 24 | Angelica valida Diels | Wuduhuo or yandanggui | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 25 | Anthriscus nemorosa (M. Bieb.) Spreng. | Ciguoeshen | Roots, whole plant, and leaves | Used as Peucedanum praeruptorum | Used as Peucedanum praeruptorum | \ | [ |
| 26 | Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. | Eshen | Roots and leaves | Invigorating spleen, replenishing qi, and expelling phlegm | Antitumor, antioxidation, and antisenity | Phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and steroidal | [ |
| 27 | Apium graveolens L. | Hanqin | Whole plant, roots, and rhizome | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and detoxification | Hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and dysuria | Organic acids, apigenin, and volatile oils | [ |
| 28 | Archangelica brevicaulisf | Duanjinggudanggui | Roots | Used as Angelica biserrata | Used as Angelica biserrata | Osthol, imperatorin, and archangelicin | [ |
| 29 | Bupleurum angustissimum (Franch.) Kitag. | Xiayechaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), β -terpinene, and β -thujene | [ |
| 30 | Bupleurum aureum Fisch. | Jinhuangchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 31 | Bupleurum bicaule Helm | Zhuiyechaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum scorzonerifolium | Used as Bupleurum scorzonerifolium | Saikosaponin d, prosaikogenin G, and prosaikogenin F | [ |
| 32 | Bupleurum candollei Wall. Ex DC. | Chuandianchaihu | Whole plant | Diminishing inflammation, detoxification, dispelling wind, and relieving convulsion | \ | Saikosaponin and flavonoids | [ |
| 33 | Bupleurum chaishoui R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Chaishou | Roots and rhizome | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 34 | ** Bupleurum chinense DC. | Beichaihu | Roots | Treatment of chronic hepatitis, kidney syndrome, and inflammatory diseases | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammation | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 35 | Bupleurum chinense DC. F. Octoradiatum (Bunge) Shan et Sheh | Baihuashanchaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammation | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 36 | Bupleurum chinense DC. F. Vanheurckii (Muell.-Arg.) Shan et Y. Li | Yantaichaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammation | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 37 | Bupleurum commelynoideum var. Flaviflorum R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Huanghuayazhichaihu | Roots, rhizome, and whole plant | Antipyretic-analgesic effect, choleretic, and hepatoprotection | Treating or relieving inflammatory bowel disease | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), β-pinene, and perillen | [ |
| 38 | Bupleurum densiflorum Rupr. | Mihuachaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 39 | Bupleurum dielsianum H. Wolff | Taibaichaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 40 | Bupleurum euphorbioides Nakai | Dabaochaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins, perillen, and undecanal | [ |
| 41 | Bupleurum exaltatum M. Bieb. | Xinjiangchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 42 | Bupleurum falcatum L. | Sandaochaihu | Roots | \ | Treatment of colds and upper respiratory tract infections | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 43 | Bupleurum gansuense S. L. Pan et Hsu | Gansuchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 44 | Bupleurum hamiltonii N. P. Balakr. | Xiaochaihu | Roots or whole plant | Antipyretic-analgesic effect, treatment of chill and fever alternation | Treatment of stomach pain, dysuria, and cough | Kaerophyllin, isokaerophyllin, and ethyl caffeic acid | [ |
| 45 | Bupleurum hamiltonii var. Hamiltonii/Bupleurum tenue | Xiaochaihu | Roots or whole plant | Used as Bupleurum hamiltonii N. P. Balakr. | Used as Bupleurum hamiltonii N. P. Balakr. | \ | [ |
| 46 | Bupleurum hamiltonii var. Humile (Franch.) R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Aixiaochaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 47 | Bupleurum huizei S. L. Pan sp. Nov. | Huizechaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 48 | Bupleurum kaoi T. S. Liu, C. Y. Chao & T. I. Chuang | Taiwanchaihu or gaoshichaihu | Roots | \ | Treatment of influenza and fever | Saikosaponin a, c | [ |
| 49 | Bupleurum komarovianum Lincz. | Changbaichaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) and volatile oils (1-caprylene, limonene, and thymol) | [ |
| 50 | Bupleurum krylovianum Schischk. Ex Krylov | Aertaichaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 51 | Bupleurum kunmingense Yin Li & S. L. Pan | Jiuyechaihu | Roots | \ | Immunomodulatory | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), cyclohexanone, and 2- methyldodecane | [ |
| 52 | Bupleurum longicaule var. Amplexicaule C. Y. Wu | Baojingchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 53 | Bupleurum longicaule var. Franchetii H. Boissieu | Kongxinchaihu | Roots or whole plant | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), cyclohexanone, and myrcene | [ |
| 54 | Bupleurum longicaule var. Giraldii H. Wolff | Qinlingchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), narcissin, and rutin | [ |
| 55 | Bupleurum longiradiatum Turcz. | Dayechaihu | Roots | Treatment of gout and inflammatory illness | Anti-inflammatory and/or antimicrobial | Thymol, butylidene phthalide, and 5-indolol | [ |
| 56 | Bupleurum luxiense Yin Li & S. L. Pan | Luxichaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), n-heptaldehyde, and octanal | [ |
| 57 | Bupleurum malconense R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Maweichaihu | Whole plant | Hepatoprotection and antipyretic effect | Acute toxicity | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), rutin, and quercetin | [ |
| 58 | Bupleurum marginatum var. Marginatum | Zichaihu or zhuyefangfeng | Whole plant | Hepatoprotection and antipyretic effect | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), rutin, and quercetin | [ |
| 59 | Bupleurum marginatum var. Stenophyllum (H. Wolff) R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Zhaizhuyechaihu | Whole plant | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), chikusaikoside I, II, and 2- methylcyclopentanone | [ |
| 60 | Bupleurum marginatum Wall. Ex DC. | Zhuyechaihu | Whole plant and roots | Hepatoprotection and antipyretic effect | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), rutin, and quercetin | [ |
| 61 | Bupleurum microcephalum Diels | Maweichaihu | Whole plant and roots | Hepatoprotection and antipyretic effect | Anti-allergen, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), rutin, and quercetin | [ |
| 62 | Bupleurum petiolulatum var. tenerum R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Xijingyoubingchaihu | Whole plant | Antipyretic-analgesic effect | Anti-inflammatory | \ | [ |
| 63 | Bupleurum polyclonum Yin Li & S. L. Pan | Duozhichaihu | Roots | \ | Anticancer | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), 4′-O-saikosaponin-a, and fenchane | [ |
| 64 | Bupleurum rockii H. Wolff | Lijiangchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d), thymol, and β-guaiene | [ |
| 65 | Bupleurum scorzonerifolium f. Longiradiatum | Changsanhongchaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Used as Bupleurum chinense | \ | [ |
| 66 | Bupleurum scorzonerifolium f. Pauciflorum | Shaohuahongchaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Used as Bupleurum chinense | \ | [ |
| 67 | ** Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. | Hongchaihu or zhuyechaihu | Roots | Antipyresis, relief of liver issues and menstrual disorders | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Rutin, quercetin, and kaempferol | [ |
| 68 | Bupleurum sibiricum var. Jeholense (Nakai) Y. C. Chu ex R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Wulingchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 69 | Bupleurum sibiricum Vest | Xinganchaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Used as Bupleurum chinense | Saikosaponin a, rutin, and quercetin | [ |
| 70 | Bupleurum sichuanense S. L. Pan et Hsu. | Sichuanchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 71 | Bupleurum smithii H. Wolff | Heichaihu | Roots | Antipyretic-analgesic effect | Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and anti-hepatic injury | Saponins, volatile oils, and lignans | [ |
| 72 | Bupleurum smithii var. Parvifolium R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Xiaoyeheichaihu | Roots | Relief of liver issues and activation of yang energy | Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and antitumor | Falcarinol, saponins, and flavonoids | [ |
| 73 | Bupleurum thianschanicum Freyn | Tianshanchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 74 | Bupleurum triradiatum Adams ex Hoffm. | Sanfuchaihu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 75 | Bupleurum wenchuanense R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Wenchuanchaihu | Roots | Used as Bupleurum | Used as Bupleurum | Quercetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside, quercetin, and rutin | [ |
| 76 | Bupleurum yinchowense R. H. Shan & Yin Li | Yinzhouchaihu or hongchaihu | Roots | Antipyresis, relief of liver issues, and activation of yang energy | Used as Bupleurum | Saikosaponins (a, c, and d) | [ |
| 77 | Carum buriaticum Turcz. | Tiangelvzi | Roots and fruits | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 78 | Carum carvi L. | Zanghuixiang | Roots, fruits, and leaves | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, invigorating the stomach, and treating heart disease | Anti-bacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor | Carvone, limonene, and dihydrocarvone | [ |
| 79 | * Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | Jixuecao | Whole plant | Clearing heat, promoting diuresis, and treating toxicity | Anti-bacterial, anti-depressive, and neuroprotective | Asiaticoside, madecassoside, and elemene | [ |
| 80 | ** Changium smyrnioides H. Wolff | Mingdangshen | Roots | Strengthening with tonics, moistening lungs, clearing phlegm, and calming the liver | Immunomodulatory, relieving fatigue, and enhancing adaptability | Cetylic acid, succinic acid, and imperatorin | [ |
| 81 | Chuanminshen violaceum M. L. Sheh & R. H. Shan | Chuanmingshen | Roots | Moistening the lungs, clearning phlegm, harmonizing the stomach, and stimulating liquids | Antioxidant, enhancing immunity, and antimutation | Polysaccharides, coumarins, and flavonoids | [ |
| 82 | Cicuta virosa L. | Duqin | Roots and rhizome | Expelling phlegm and detoxification | Treatment of osteomyelitis, gout, and rheumatism | P-cymene, cicutoxine, and L-limonene | [ |
| 83 | * Cnidium monnieri (L.) Spreng. | Shechuang | Fruits | Dispelling wind, relieving convulsion, treating impotence | Antibacterial, antiviral, and antimutagenesis | Osthole, limonene, and cnidimoside A | [ |
| 84 | Cnidium officinale | Dongchuanxiong | Roots | Used as Cnidium monnieri | Used as Cnidium monnieri | \ | [ |
| 85 | Conioselinum acuminatum (Franch.) Lavrova | Shuigaoben | Roots | \ | \ | Sabinene, α-pinene, and aromadendrene | [ |
| 86 | Conioselinum anthriscoides ‘Fuxiong’ | Fuxiong | Roots | \ | \ | β-bergamotene | [ |
| 87 | Conioselinum tenuisectum (H. Boissieu) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Xiliegaoben | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 88 | Conioselinum vaginatum (Spreng.) Thell. | Xinjianggaoben or qiaoshanxiong | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Treatment of common cold due to wind-cold and gastro spasm | Diligustilide, daucosterol, and palmitic acid | [ |
| 89 | Conium maculatum L. | Dushen | Whole plant | Relieving pain and relieving muscular spasm | Treatment of cancer | Coniine, N-methyl-coniine, conhydrine 2-(1-hydroxypropyl)-piperidine | [ |
| 90 | Coriandrum sativum L. | Husui | Whole plant, fruits, and stems | Invigorating the stomach and promoting eruption | Antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant | Petroselinic acid, linoleic acid, and oleic acid | [ |
| 91 | Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk. | Sanyeqin | Whole plant | Treatment of weakness, urinary closure, and swelling | Antioxidant, protection of liver, and anticancer | Friedelin, stigmasterol, and apigenin | [ |
| 92 | Cuminum cyminum L. | Ziranqin | Fruits | Treatment of indigestion and stomach/abdominal pain | Antibacterial, antioxidant, and radical-scavenging properties | α-pinene, 1,8-cineole, and linalool | [ |
| 93 | Cyclorhiza peucedanifolia (Franch.) Constance | Nanzhuyehuangenqin | Fruits | Enriching the blood, activating the blood, and regulating menstrual disorder | \ | \ | [ |
| 94 | Daucus carota L. | Carrot | Fruits | Treatment of ascariasis, enterobiasis, and tapeworm disease | Insecticidal, anti-bacterial, and anticancer | α-pinene, isophorone oxide, and and quercetrin | [ |
| 95 | Daucus carota var. Carota | Wild carrot | Fruits | Treatment of ascariasis, enterobiasis, and tapeworm disease | Insecticidal, anti-bacterial, and anticancer | α-pinene, β-bisabolene, and luteolin | [ |
| 96 | Daucus carota var. Sativus Hoffm. | Wild carrot | Roots and basal leaves | Strengthening spleen, treatment of dyspepsia and chronic dysentery | Enhancing immunity, anticancer and anti-aging | Carotene, (1R)-α-pinene, and β-carotene | [ |
| 97 | Eriocycla albescens (Franch.) H. Wolff | Dianqianghuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 98 | Eryngium foetidum L. | Ciqin | Whole plant | Diuresis, treatment of dropsy and snakebite | Bacteriostat, diminishing of inflammation, and promotion of detumescence | Lanolin alcohol, carotene, and n-nonyl aldehyde | [ |
| 99 | Ferula bungeana Kitag. | Yingawei | Whole plant and seeds | Heat clearing and detoxifying, relieving pain and expelling phlegm, and arresting coughing | Treatment of cold, bronchopneumonia, and pulmonary tuberculosis | Anisole, d-fenchone, and limonen | [ |
| 100 | Ferula caspica M. Bieb. | Lihaiawei | Roots and resin | Eliminating stagnated food, relieving dyspepsia, insecticide | Treatment of toxicity | Umbelliprenin, farnesyl alcohol, and umbelliferone | [ |
| 101 | Ferula conocaula Korovin | Yuanzhuijingawei | Resin, roots, and rhizome | Eliminating stagnated food, insecticide, treatment of abdominal mass | Anticancer and treatment of influenza | Umbelliprenin, fezelol, and feterin | [ |
| 102 | Ferula feruloides (Steud.) Korovin | Xiangawei | Roots and resin | Treatment of chilliness, and heart and abdominal pain | Insecticidal, bacteriostat, and antitumor | α-pinene, farnesene and toluene | [ |
| 103 | ** Ferula fukanensis K. M. Shen | Fukangawei | Resin | Eliminating stagnated food, relieving dyspepsia, insecticide | Treatment of stomach disease, rheumatism, and joint pain | Ferulic acid, guaiol, and ethyl-p-hydroxybenzoate | [ |
| 104 | Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke | Zhongyaawei | Resin of overground part | Eliminating stagnated food, insecticide, treatment of tumors, wounds, and peptic ulcers | Antifertility | Jaeschkeanadiol, α-pinene, and β-pinene | [ |
| 105 | Ferula krylovii Korovin | Tuoliawei | Resin | Eliminating stagnated food, insecticide | \ | Fekrynol, ferukrin and fekrynol acetate | [ |
| 106 | Ferula lehmannii Boiss. | Daguoawei | Resin | Detoxification, deodorization, and insecticide | Treatment of gastropathy, rheumatism, and arthralgia | Lehmannolone, sinkianone, and lehmannolone A | [ |
| 107 | Ferula moschata (Reinsch) Koso-Pol. | Shexiangawei | Roots | Sedative, treatment of spasmolysis and hysteria | Suppresses the replication of human immunodeficiency virus in H9 lymphocytes and suppresses the production of cytokine | Fezelol, fesumtuorin A, and fesumtuorin B | [ |
| 108 | Ferula olivacea (Diels) H. Wolff ex Hand.-Mazz. | Lanlvawei | Resin | Wind-heat dispersing, expelling phlegm, and arresting cough | \ | \ | [ |
| 109 | ** Ferula sinkiangensis K. M. Shen | Xinjiangawei | Resin | Eliminating stagnated food, detoxification, insecticide | Antioxidant, antitumor, and antiviral | Ferulic acid, fekrynol, and lehmannolone | [ |
| 110 | Ferula songarica Pall. Ex Schult. | Zhungaeawei | Resin and whole plant | Eliminating stagnated food, insecticide | \ | 2,4-dihydroxylacetophenone, 3,3′, 4,4′-biphenyltetracarboxylic acid, and Δ3-carene | [ |
| 111 | Ferula teterrima Kar. & Kir. | Chouawei | Resin | Eliminating stagnated food, insecticide | Treatment of malaria and dysentery | Feterin, badrakemin, and badrakemin acetate | [ |
| 112 | * Foeniculum vulgare Mill. | Xiaohuixiang | Fruits, roots, stems, leaves, and whole plant | Dispelling wind, relieving pain, and harmonizing the stomach | Bacteriostat, anti-inflammatory, and insecticide | Trans-anethole, estragole, and anisaldehyde | [ |
| 113 | ** Glehnia littoralis F. Schmidt ex Miq. | Beishashen | Roots | Heat clearing and detoxifying, diminishing inflammation, expelling phlegm, and arresting cough | Anti-inflammatory, bacteriostat, and antitumor | Phenyllactic acid, catechol, and quercetin | [ |
| 114 | Hansenia oviformis (R. H. Shan) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Luanyeqianghuo | Rhizome, roots, and leaves | Treatment of rheumatic arthralgia, cold due to wind-cold, and headache | \ | \ | [ |
| 115 | Heracleum barmanicum Kurz | Yinduduhuo | Roots | Treatment of cold abdominalgia | \ | \ | [ |
| 116 | Heracleum candicans Wall. Ex DC. | Baiyunhua | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Treatment of cold headache | Bergapten, heraclenin, and imperatorin | [ |
| 117 | Heracleum dissectifolium K. T. Fu | Duolieduhuo | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | \ | \ | [ |
| 118 | Heracleum fargesii H. Boissieu | Chengkouduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 119 | Heracleum franchetii M. Hiroe | Jianyeduhuo | Roots and rhizome | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 120 | Heracleum hemsleyanum | Niuweiduhuo | Roots and rhizome | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor | β-pinene, α-pinene, and (1S)-6,6-dimethyl-2-methylene-bicyclo [3.1.1] heptane | [ |
| 121 | Heracleum hemsleyanum Diels | Beiduhuo or dahuo | Roots and rhizome | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor | Osthole, columbianadin, and columbianetin | [ |
| 122 | Heracleum henryi H. Wolff | Nanguaqi | Roots | Clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, relieving pain and scattered stasis | \ | Turgeniifolin B, turgeniifolin C, and bergapten | [ |
| 123 | Heracleum millefolium var. Millefolium | Qianyeduhuo or zangdanggui | Roots and rhizome | Detumescence, treating masses, and treating leprosy | \ | \ | [ |
| 124 | Heracleum moellendorffii Hance | Duanmaoduhuo | Roots and rhizome | Clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, relieving pain and scattered stasis | Bacteriostat | β-pinene, α-pinene, and pentadecane | [ |
| 125 | Heracleum oreocharis H. Wolff | Shandiduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 126 | Heracleum rapula Franch. | Baiyunhua | Roots | Clearing and activating the channels and collaterals, relieving pain and scattered stasis | Bacteriostat, treatment of asthma, and chronic bronchitis | Ostholce, marmesin, and imperatorin | [ |
| 127 | Heracleum scabridum Franch. | Dianbaizhi or caoduhuo | Roots, rhizome, and fruits | Treatment of common cold due to wind-cold, headache, cough, and asthma | \ | Heraclenol, oxypeucedanin-hydrate, and byakangelicin | [ |
| 128 | Heracleum souliei H. Boissieu | Xiaoduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | Bergapten | [ |
| 129 | Heracleum stenopterum Diels | Xiachiduhuo | Roots | Treatment of cold and rheumatism | \ | Bergapten, isopimpinellin, and sphondin | [ |
| 130 | Heracleum tiliifolium H. Wolff | Duanyeduhuo | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | \ | \ | [ |
| 131 | Heracleum vicinum H. Boissieu | Pingjieduhuo | Roots | Used as Notopterygium incisum | \ | \ | [ |
| 132 | Heracleum wenchuanense F. T. Pu & X. J. He | Wenchuanduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 133 | Heracleum wolongense F. T. Pu & X. J. He | Wolongduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 134 | Heracleum yungningense Hand.-Mazz. | Niuweiduhuo | Roots and rhizome | Treatment of waist and knee pain, limb spasm, and leucoderma | \ | Pimpinellin, angelicin, and isobergapten | [ |
| 135 | Hydrocotyle himalaica P. K. Mukh. | Binghuatianhusui | Whole plant | Heat clearing, detoxifying, and eliminating dampness | \ | Asiaticoside, madecassoside, and quercetin | [ |
| 136 | Hydrocotyle hookeri subsp. Chinensis (Dunn ex R. H. Shan & S. L. Liou) M. F. Watson & M. L. Sheh | Tongqiancao | Whole plant | Relieving pain, diuresis, and removing dampness | Antiviral, antitumor, and anti-bacterial | Flavonoids, triterpenes, and volatile oils | [ |
| 137 | Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. | Hongmaticao | Whole plant | Clearing heat and promoting diuresis, dissolving stasis, and hemostasis and detoxification | Antiviral, antitumor, and anti-bacterial | Flavonoids, triterpenes, and volatile oils | [ |
| 138 | Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. | Xiaojinqiancao | Whole plant | Heat clearing, diuresis, and detumescence | Anti-ulcer, antilipemic, and antiviral | Quercetin, isorhamnetin, and asiaticoside | [ |
| 139 | Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides var. batrachium (Hance) Hand.-Mazz. Ex R. H. Shan | Tianhusui or potongqian | Whole plant | Heat clearing and detoxifying, eliminating dampness, and diuresis | Anti-ulcer, spasmolysis, and anti-inflammatory | Benzene propane nitrile, phytol, and caryophyllene oxide | [ |
| 140 | Hydrocotyle wilfordii Maxim. | Yutengcao | Whole plant | As Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. | As Hydrocotyle nepalensis Hook. | Asiaticoside, madecassoside, and quercetin | [ |
| 141 | Hymenidium chloroleucum (Diels) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Xizangdiangaoben | Roots or whole plant | Regulating flow of qi, invigorating the stomach, and activating blood | Anti-inflammatory, analgesia, and nutritious function | Nobiletin, falcarindiol, and isoliquiritingenin | [ |
| 142 | Hymenidium davidii (Franch.) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Songpanlengziqin | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 143 | Hymenidium delavayi (Franch.) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Lijianggaoben | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 144 | Hymenidium lindleyanum (Klotzsch) Pimenov & Kljuykov | Tianshanlengziqin | Roots | Treatment of hypertension, coronary heart disease, and altitude stress | \ | Bergapten, isoimperatorin, and oxypeucedanin | [ |
| 145 | Kitagawia formosana (Hayata) Pimenov | Taiwanqianhu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 146 | Kitagawia macilenta (Franch.) Pimenov | Xilieqianhu | Roots | Expelling phlegm | \ | \ | [ |
| 147 | Kitagawia terebinthacea (Fisch. Ex Trevir.) Pimenov | Shifangfeng | Roots | Clearing heat and dispelling wind, calming the adverse-rising energy, and expelling phlegm | Treatment of cold and cough, bronchitis, and cough during pregnancy | Isoepoxybuterixin | [ |
| 148 | Levisticum officinale W. D. J. Koch | Oudanggui | Roots | Diuresis, invigorating the stomach, and expelling phlegm | Inhibition of rhythmic uterine contractions, Scavenging oxygen free radicals, and anti-lipid peroxidation | Ligustilide, α-phellandrene, and β-phellandrene | [ |
| 149 | Libanotis buchtormensis (Fisch.) DC. | Yanfeng | Roots | Treating wind chill, dispelling wind dampness, and relieving pain | Bacteriostat, treatment of common cold due to wind-cold, generalized pain, and cough | Falcarinone, isoimperatorin, and xanthotoxin | [ |
| 150 | Libanotis iliensis (Lipsky) Korovin | Xiyefangfeng | Roots | Expel wind-cold pathogens, thermolysis, and relieving pain | Treatment of common cold due to wind-cold and rheumatic arthritis | Archangelin and iliensin | [ |
| 151 | Libanotis lancifolia K. T. Fu | Yanfeng | Roots | Divergent wind chill, dispelling wind-damp, and relieving pain | Bacteriostat, treatment of common cold due to wind-cold, generalized pain, and cough | Falcarinone, isoimperatorin, and xanthotoxin | [ |
| 152 | Libanotis laticalycina R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Shuifangfeng | Roots | Dispelling wind, antispasmodic, and relieving pain | Analgesic, sedative, and anti-inflammatory | Octanal, hexanal, and 2-pentylfuran | [ |
| 153 | Libanotis seseloides (Fisch. & C. A. Mey. Ex Turcz.) Turcz. | Xiangqin | Roots | Eliminating dampness, activating spleen, and promote blood circulation | Treatment of obstruction, dysentery, and sores | Edultin | [ |
| 154 | Libanotis sibirica (L.) C. A. Mey. | Beixiangqin | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 155 | Libanotis spodotrichoma K. T. Fu | Changchongqi | Roots | Treating wind chill, dispelling wind dampness, and relieving pain | Bacteriostat, treatment of common cold due to wind-cold, generalized pain, and cough | Falcarinone, isoimperatorin, and xanthotoxin | [ |
| 156 | Ligusticopsis brachyloba (Franch.) Leute | Maoqianhu | Roots | Sudation, relieving pain, and dispelling wind | Treatment of headache, dizziness, arthralgia, and tetanus | α-pinene, β-pinene, and sabinene | [ |
| 157 | Ligusticopsis daucoides (Franch.) Lavrova & Kljuykov | Yubaogaoben | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 158 | Ligusticopsis likiangensis (H. Wolff) Lavrova & Kljuykov | Meimaigaoben | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 159 | ** Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. | Chuanxiong | Roots, rhizome, stems, and leaves | Activating blood, relieving pain, and dispelling wind | Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor | Abietene, tetramethylpyrazine, and glucose | [ |
| 160 | ** Ligusticum jeholense Nakai et Kitag. | Liaogaoben | Roots and rhizome | Dispelling wind, dispersing cold, and eliminating dampness | Anti-inflammatory, sedative, and anti-ulcer | Ferulic acid, isoferulic acid, and daucosterol | [ |
| 161 | Ligusticum pteridophyllum Franch. | Jueyegaoben | Roots | Dispelling wind, relieving pain, and eliminating dampness | Treatment of cold due to wind-cold and migraine | Asaricin, β-sitosterol, and daucosterol | [ |
| 162 | ** Ligusticum sinense Oliv. | Baogen | Roots, rhizome, and tuber | Expelling wind-cold pathogens, eliminating dampness, and relieving pain | Anti-inflammatory, central inhibitory, and anti-thrombotic effects | 3-butylphthalide, opthalonide, and neopthalonide | [ |
| 163 | Ligusticum tenuissimum (Nakai) Kitagawa | Gaoben | Roots and rhizome | Used as ligusticum sinense Oliv. Treatment of wind chill, wind-cold headache, and diarrhea | Analgesia and sedation | Ferulic acid | [ |
| 164 | Meeboldia delavayi (Franch.) W. Gou & X. J. He | Dianqin | Roots | Treatment of cold, fever, and headache | \ | \ | [ |
| 165 | Nothosmyrnium japonicum var. Japonicum | Baibaoqin | Roots | \ | Sedation and analgesia | \ | [ |
| 166 | Nothosmyrnium japonicum var. Sutchuensis H. Boissieu | Chuanbaibaoqin | Roots | \ | Sedation and analgesia | \ | [ |
| 167 | ** Notopterygium franchetii H. De Boiss. | Kuanyeqianghuo | Roots and rhizome | Treating wind chill, dispelling wind, and eliminating dampness | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antiviral | Nodakenin, ferulic acid, and bergamot lactone | [ |
| 168 | ** Notopterygium incisum Ting ex H. T. Chang | Qianghuo | Roots and rhizome | Treating wind chill, dispelling wind, and eliminating dampness | Anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antiviral | Nodakenin, notopterol, and isoimperatorin | [ |
| 169 | Oenanthe benghalensis Benth. & Hook. | Shaohuashuiqin | Roots and whole plant | Used as Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. | Used as Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. | \ | [ |
| 170 | Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. | Shuiqin | Roots, stems, and whole plant | Heat clearing, detoxification, and removing liver-fire | Enhancing immunity, antiarrhythmic, and hypoglycemic | Phytic acid, γ-terpinene, and caryophyllene | [ |
| 171 | Oenanthe linearis subsp. Rivularis (Dunn) C. Y. Wu & F. T. Pu | Yeshuiqin | Roots and whole plant | Used as Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. | Used as Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. | \ | [ |
| 172 | Osmorhiza aristata var. Laxa (Royle) Constance & R. H. Shan | Xianggenqin | Roots | Treating wind chill and sudation, and relieving pain | \ | \ | [ |
| 173 | Ostericum citriodorum (Hance) C. C. Yuan & R. H. Shan | Geshanxiang | Roots and whole plant | Activating blood, dissolving stasis, and dispelling wind | Expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and bacteriostat | Isoapiole, panaxynol, and myristicin | [ |
| 174 | Ostericum grosseserratum (Maxim.) Kitag. | Dachishanqin | Roots | Activating spleen, dispersing cold, invigorating spleen, and replenishing qi | \ | Octanal, β-pinene, and myristic acid | [ |
| 175 | Ostericum sieboldii (Miq.) Nakai | Shanqin | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 176 | Peucedanum dielsianum Fedde ex H. Wolff | Chuanfangfeng | Roots and rhizome | Relieving pain, dispelling wind, and eliminating dampness | \ | Isoimperatorin, Phellopterin, and 9-octadecenoic acid | [ |
| 177 | Peucedanum dissolutum (Diels) H. Wolff | Yanfeng | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 178 | Peucedanum harry-smithii var. Subglabrum | Yingqianhu | Roots | Used as Peucedanum praeruptorum; alleviating asthma, reducing phlegm, and heat elimination | Treatment of bronchitis, hypertension, and coronary heart disease | Psoralen, bergapten, and xanthotoxin | [ |
| 179 | Peucedanum japonicum Thunb. | Binhaiqianhu | Roots | Clearing heat, relieving cough, and diuresis | Antipyresis, analgesia, and anti-inflammatory | Peucedanol, umbelliferone, and β-pinene | [ |
| 180 | Peucedanum ledebourielloides K. T. Fu | Huashanqianhu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 181 | Peucedanum longshengense R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Nanlingqianhu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 182 | Peucedanum mashanense R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Fangfeng | Roots | Expelling phlegm | \ | \ | [ |
| 183 | Peucedanum medicum Dunn | Huazhongqianhu | Roots | Expelling phlegm, alleviating asthma and cough, and arresting convulsion | Anticoagulation, antioxidant, and antibacterial | 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, p-menthan-1-ol, and cis-α-bisabolene | [ |
| 184 | Peucedanum medicum var. Gracile Dunn ex R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Yanqianhu | Roots and rhizome | Expelling phlegm, alleviating asthma and cough, and arresting convulsion | Anticoagulation, antioxidant, and antibacterial | Isoimperatorin, phellorerin, and bergapten | [ |
| 185 | Peucedanum medicum var. Medicum | Huazhongqianhu | Roots and rhizome | Expelling phlegm, alleviating asthma and cough, and arresting convulsion | Anticoagulation, antioxidant, and antibacterial | 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, p-menthan-1-ol, and cis-α-bisabolene | [ |
| 186 | ** Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn | Qianhu | Roots | Treating gas, clearing heat, and reducing phlegm | Anticoagulation, antioxidant, and anticancer | Praeruptorin A, praeruptorin B, and scopoletin | [ |
| 187 | Peucedanum shanianum F. L. Chen & Y. F. Deng | Hongqianhu | Roots | Relieving asthma, expelling phlegm, and treating spasmolysis | Anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, and anti-ulcer | Sinodielides A, deltoin, and (+)-pareruptorin A | [ |
| 188 | Peucedanum turgeniifolium H. Wolff/Peucedanum pulchrum | Yaqianhu | Roots and whole plant | Expelling phlegm, antibechic, and dispersing wind-heat | Smooth muscle spasmolysis | Turgenifolin A, turgenifolin B, and bergapten | [ |
| 189 | Peucedanum wawrae (H. Wolff) S. W. Su ex M. L. Sheh | Taishanqianhu | Roots | Antibechic and expelling phlegm | Analgesia, sedation, and anti-inflammatory | Peucedanocoumarin, d-laserpitin, and bergapten | [ |
| 190 | Peucedanum wulongense R. H. Shan & M. L. Sheh | Wulongqianhu | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 191 | Phlojodicarpus sibiricus (Steph. Ex Spreng.) Koso-Pol. | Zhangguoqin | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 192 | Physospermopsis alepidioides (H. Wolff & Hand.-Mazz.) R. H. Shan | Quanyedianxiong | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 193 | Physospermopsis delavayi (Franch.) H. Wolff | Dianxiong | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 194 | Pimpinella anisum L. | Huiqin | Fruits | Warming meridian and diuresis | Treatment of paralysis, facial paralysis, and migraine | Anisaldehyde, anisole, and (E)-anethole | [ |
| 195 | Pimpinella candolleana Wight & Arn. | Xingyefangfeng | Roots or whole plant | Warming spleen and stomach for dispelling cold, relieving pain, and dispelling wind | Relieving muscular spasm, antiviral, and antibacterial | α-zingiberene, pregeijerene, and β-elemene | [ |
| 196 | Pimpinella coriacea (Franch.) H. Boissieu | Geyehuiqin | Whole plant | Warming spleen and stomach for dispelling cold, dispelling wind, and eliminating dampness, and activating blood | \ | \ | [ |
| 197 | Pimpinella diversifolia DC. | Yiyehuiqin | Whole plant | Expelling phlegm, activating blood, relieving pain, and removing toxicity for detumescence | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and anti-tuberculosis | 1H-benzocycloheptene, sesquiphellandrene, and β-chamigrene | [ |
| 198 | Pimpinella diversifolia var. Diversifolia | Yiyehuiqin | Roots or whole plant | Invigorating stomach, dispersing accumulations, and antidiarrheic | Anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and anti-tuberculosis | 1H-benzocycloheptene, sesquiphellandrene, and β-chamigrene | [ |
| 199 | Pimpinella thellungiana H. Wolff | Yanghongshan | Roots or whole plant | Warming spleen and stomach for dispelling cold, benefiting qi and nourishing blood, and coordinating yin and yang | Hypotensive, hypolipidemic, and modulates and improves cellular immunity | Protocatechuic acid, gallic acid, and neochlorogenic acid | [ |
| 200 | Pleurospermopsis bicolor (Franch.) Jing Zhou & J. Wei | erselengziqin | Whole plant | Warming spleen and stomach for dispelling cold, benefiting qi and nourishing blood, and coordinating yin and yang | Hypotensive, antilipemic, and modulates and improves cellular immunity, antimicrobial | Chlorogenic acid, isochlorogenic acid A, and apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside | [ |
| 201 | Pleurospermum aromaticum W. W. Sm. | fangxianglengziqin | Whole plant | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 202 | Pleurospermum giraldii Diels | Taibaidiangaoben | Whole plant and seeds | Warming spleen, digesting food, and treating vaginal discharge | Inhibition of smooth muscle contraction and releasing intestinal smooth muscle spasm | Carvone, n-triactanol, and γ-sitosterol | [ |
| 203 | Pleurospermum rivulorum (Diels) K. T. Fu & Y. C. Ho | Shetouqianghuo | Roots or whole plant | Tonifying the kidney | \ | \ | [ |
| 204 | Pternopetalum leptophyllum (Dunn) Hand.-Mazz. | Baoyenangbanqin | Whole plant | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 205 | Pternopetalum vulgare var. Vulgare | Wupiqing | Roots or whole plant | Treatment of lumbago | \ | \ | [ |
| 206 | Sanicula astrantiifolia H. Wolff ex Kretschmer | Wupifeng or xiaoheiyao | Whole plant | Tonifying the kidney and lung, treating tuberculosis and kidney vacuity lumbar pain | Antioxidant, antibacterial, and bacteriostat | Total flavonoids, rutin, and polysaccharides | [ |
| 207 | Sanicula caerulescens Franch. | Dafeijincao | Whole plant | Dispelling wind, treating phlegm, and promoting blood circulation for regulating menstruation | Expectorant, antibechic, and anti-inflammatory | Angelicin, isoferulaldehyde, and 12-hydroxybakuchiol | [ |
| 208 | Sanicula chinensis Bunge | Shanqincai | Whole plant | Detoxification, hemostasis, and treatment of throat pain | Antiviral | \ | [ |
| 209 | Sanicula elata Buch.-Ham. Ex D. Don | Sanyeqi | Whole plant | Used as Sanicula lamelligera | Antiviral | Oleanane saponins, saponins, and microelement | [ |
| 210 | Sanicula lamelligera Hance | Dafeijincao | Whole plant | Dispelling wind, treating phlegm, and promoting blood circulation for regulating menstruation | Expectorant, antibechic, and anti-inflammatory | Angelicin, isoferulaldehyde, and 12-hydroxybakuchiol | [ |
| 211 | Sanicula orthacantha S. Moore | Heiejiaoban | Roots or whole plant | Heat clearing and detoxifying, treatment of traumatic injury | \ | \ | [ |
| 212 | Sanicula orthacantha var. Brevispina H. Boissieu | Yajiaoqi | Whole plant | Heat clearing and detoxifying, treatment of traumatic injury | \ | \ | [ |
| 213 | ** Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. | Fangfeng | Roots | Dispelling wind, removing dampness to relieve pain, and arresting convulsion | Analgesia, sedation, and anti-inflammatory | Prim-o-glucosylcimifugin, 5-O-methylvisamitol glycoside, and cimifugin | [ |
| 214 | Selinum cryptotaenium H. Boissieu | Linagshechuang | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 215 | Semenovia montana Kamelin & V. M. Vinogr. | Lieyeduhuo | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 216 | Seseli delavayi Franch. | Yunfangfeng | Roots | Dispelling wind, removing dampness, and relieving pain | \ | \ | [ |
| 217 | Seseli mairei var. Mairei | Yunfangfeng | Roots and rhizome | Dispelling wind, removing dampness, and relieving pain | Antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory | Sphondin, bergapten, and isopimpinellin | [ |
| 218 | Seseli yunnanense Franch. | Chuanfangfeng | Roots and rhizome | Dispelling wind, removing dampness, and relieving pain | Antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory | Falcarindiol, falcarinol, and glycerol monolinoleate | [ |
| 219 | Seselopsis tianschanica Schischk. | Xiguiqin | Roots | Treatment of fall injury, anemia, and other diseases | Treatment of nasopharynx cancer | \ | [ |
| 220 | Sium suave Walter | Caogaoben | Whole plant | Dispersing cold, relieving headache, and decreasing blood pressure | \ | \ | [ |
| 221 | Spuriopimpinella arguta (Diels) X. J. He & Z. X. Wang | Jianchidayeqin | Roots and whole plant | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 222 | Tongoloa silaifolia (H. Boissieu) H. Wolff | Taibaisanqi | Roots | Stopping bleeding, relieving pain, and activating blood | Treatment of traumatic injury, trauma bleeding, and rheumatic pain | Suberosin, crenulatin, and isoimperatorin | [ |
| 223 | Tongoloa stewardii H. Wolff | Gulingdongeqin | Roots | \ | \ | \ | [ |
| 224 | Torilis japonica (Houtt.) DC. | Heshi | Fruits and roots | Lumbricide ascaricide and external antiphlogistic agent | \ | Essential oil | [ |
| 225 | Torilis scabra (Thunb.) DC. | Huananheshi | Fruits or whole plant | Activating blood, insecticide, and antidiarrheal | Bacteriostat | Cyclohexene, 6,6-dimethyl-bicyclo [3.1.1] heptane-2-carboxaldehyde, and endo-borneol | [ |
| 226 | Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague. | Ayuwei | Fruits | Dispersing cold, relieving pain, and treating indigestion | Antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antifungal | thymol, ρ-cymene, and β-pinene | [ |
| 227 | Vicatia thibetica H. Boissieu | Xigui | Roots | Dispelling wind, eliminating dampness, and dispelling cold | Anti-fatigue, antioxidant, and enhancing immunity | Umbelliferone, bergapten, and ferulic acid | [ |
| 228 | Visnaga daucoides Gaertn. | Amiqin | Fruits | Treatment of coronary artery disease, such as coronary thrombosis | Treatment of renal colic, angina pectoris, and urinary calculi | Khellin, visnagin, and khellol glycoside | [ |
Note: * means the plant reported in “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (2020)”, ** means the plant roots used as medicine reported in “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (2020)” [
Quality markers in the 22 AMPs recorded in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020) [
| No./No. in |
Plant Species | Quality Markers | Classification | Biosynthetic Pathway |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1/8 | Angelica biserrata | Osthole (1) and columbianadin (2) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 2/10 | Angelica dahurica | Imperatorin (3) and isoimperatorin (4) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 3/11 | Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi | (3) and (4) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 4/13 | Angelica decursiva | Nodakenin (5) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 5/20 | Angelica sinensis | Ferulic acid (6) and ligustilide (15) | Propenyl benzenes and phthalides | Phenylpropanoids and phthalides |
| 6/34 | Bupleurum chinense | Saikosaponin a (11) and saikosaponin d (12) | Triterpenes | Terpenes |
| 7/67 | Bupleurum scorzonerifolium | (11) and (12) | Triterpenes | Terpenes |
| 8/79 | Changium asiatica | Asiaticoside (13) and madecassoside (14) | Triterpenes | Terpenes |
| 9/80 | Changium smyrnioides | – | – | – |
| 10/83 | Changium monnieri | (1) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 11/94 | Daucus carota | – | – | – |
| 12/102 | Ferula fukanensis | – | – | – |
| 13/109 | Ferula sinkiangensis | – | – | – |
| 14/112 | Foeniculum vulgare | Trans-anethole (7) | Phenylpropene | Phenylpropanoids |
| 15/113 | Glehnia littoralis | – | – | – |
| 16/159 | Ligusticum chuanxiong | (6) and levistilide A (16) | Phenylpropanoids and phthalide | Phenylpropanoids and phthalides |
| 17/160 | Ligusticum jeholense | (6) | Phenylpropanoids | Phenylpropanoids |
| 18/162 | Ligusticum sinense | (6) | Phenylpropanoids | Phenylpropanoids |
| 19/167 | Notopterygium franchetii | (4), (5), and notopterol (8) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 20/168 | Notopterygium incisum | (4), (5), and (8) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 21/186 | Peucedanum praeruptorum | Praeruptorin A (9) and praeruptorin B (10) | Coumarins | Phenylpropanoids |
| 22/213 | Saposhnikovia divaricata | Prim-O-glucosylcimifugin (17) and 5-O-methylvisammioside (18) | Chromones | Chromones |
Note: “–” indicates there are no specific quality markers recorded in the “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China” (2020) [
Classification of the 38 rhizomatous AMPs affected by BF.
| No./No. in Table 1 | Plant Species | Classes | References | No./No. in Table 1 | Plant Species | Classes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1/4 | Angelica acutiloba (Siebold & Zucc.) Kitag. | (1) | [ |
20/109 | * Ferula sinkiangensis K. M. Shen | (3) | [ |
| 2/8 | ** Angelica biserrata (R. H. Shan & C. C. Yuan) C. C. Yuan & R. H. Shan | (1) | [ |
21/111 | Ferula teterrima Kar. & Kir. | (3) | [ |
| 3/10 | ** Angelica dahurica (Fisch. ex Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Franch. & Sav. | (1) | [ |
22/113 | ** Glehnia littoralis F. Schmidt ex Miq. | (2) | [ |
| 4/11 | ** Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi | (1) | [ |
23/121 | Heracleum hemsleyanum Diels | (1) | [ |
| 5/13 | ** Angelica decursiva (Miq.) Franch. & Sav. | (1) | [ |
24/126 | Heracleum rapula Franch. | (1) | [ |
| 6/14 | Angelica gigas Nakai | (2) | [ |
25/148 | Levisticum officinale W. D. J. Koch | (3) | [ |
| 7/19 | Angelica polymorpha Maxim. | (1) | [ |
26/149 | Libanotis buchtormensis (Fisch.) DC | (3) | [ |
| 8/20 | ** Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | (1) | [ |
27/150 | Libanotis iliensis (Lipsky) Korovin | (1) | [ |
| 9/26 | Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. | (3) | [ |
28/151 | Libanotis lancifolia K. T. Fu | (3) | [ |
| 10/34 | ** Bupleurum chinense DC. | (2) | [ |
29/153 | Libanotis seseloides (Fisch. & C. A. Mey. ex Turcz.) Turcz. | (1) | [ |
| 11/67 | ** Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. | (2) | [ |
30/155 | Libanotis spodotrichoma K. T. Fu | (3) | [ |
| 12/80 | ** Changium smyrnioides H. Wolff | (2) | [ |
31/159 | ** Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. | (2) | [ |
| 13/81 | Chuanminshen violaceum M. L. Sheh & R. H. Shan | (2) | [ |
32/160 | ** Ligusticum jeholense Nakai et Kitag. | (2) | [ |
| 14/82 | Cicuta virosa L. | (3) | [ |
33/162 | ** Ligusticum sinense Oliv. | (2) | [ |
| 15/96 | Daucus carota var. sativus Hoffm. | (1) | [ |
34/167 | ** Notopterygium franchetii H. de Boiss. | (2) | [ |
| 16/102 | Ferula feruloides (Steud.) Korovin | (3) | [ |
35/168 | ** Notopterygium incisum Ting ex H. T. Chang | (2) | [ |
| 17/103 | Ferula fukanensis K. M. Shen | (3) | [ |
36/186 | ** Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn | (1) | [ |
| 18/106 | Ferula lehmannii Boiss. | (3) | [ |
37/195 | Pimpinella candolleana Wight & Arn. | (3) | [ |
| 19/108 | Ferula olivacea (Diels) H. Wolff ex Hand.-Mazz. | (3) | [ |
38/213 | ** Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. | (1) | [ |
Note: (1) BF significantly affects the yield and quality, and the rhizomes or roots cannot be used for clinical applications; (2) BF differently affects the yield, but the rhizomes or roots can be used as medicine to some extent; and (3) BF has no significant effect on the yield and quality, and their rhizomes or roots are used as medicine. * means the plant reported in “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (2020)”, ** means the plant roots used as medicine reported in “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (2020)” [
Reported approaches for inhibiting BF in 25 AMPs.
| Class | No./No. in Table 1 | Plant Species | Measure I |
Measure II |
Measure III |
Measure IV |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| (1) | 1/4 | Angelica acutiloba (Siebold & Zucc.) Kitag. | Seedling diameter [ |
Density of planted seedlings [ |
Paclobutrazol concentration [ |
\ |
| (1) | 2/8 | ** Angelica biserrate (R. H. Shan & C. C. Yuan) C. C. Yuan & R. H. Shan | Seedling size and root length [ |
\ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 3/10 | ** Angelica dahurica (Fisch. ex Hoffm.) Benth. & Hook. f. ex Franch. & Sav. | Seed quality and seed maturity degree [ |
Soil selection to avoid continuous cropping and fertile sticky soil, density of planted seedlings, and seeding time [ |
Rational application of fertilizer, and appropriate N, P, and K fertilizer [ |
Seven types of reproductive conversion genes, and constans-like genes [ |
| (1) | 4/11 | ** Angelica dahurica cv. Hangbaizhi | Seed quality and seed maturity degree [ |
Soil selection to avoid continuous cropping and fertile sticky soil, density of planted seedlings, and seeding time [ |
Rational application of fertilizer, and appropriate N, P, and K fertilizer [ |
Seven types of reproductive conversion genes, and constans-like genes [ |
| (1) | 5/13 | ** Angelica decursiva (Miq.) Franch. & Sav. | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 6/19 | Angelica polymorpha Maxim. | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 7/20 | ** Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels | Seed maturity degree, seeding age, seeding weight, root diameter, and excellent variety [ |
Short day, storage temperature, and reasonable planting and cultivation [ |
Plant growth retardant [ |
Four pathways of genes for regulating early BF [ |
| (1) | 8/96 | Daucus carota var. Sativus Hoffm. | Endogenous hormone content and different cultivars [ |
Temperature, short day, and seeding time [ |
\ | Two major genes: Bol1-1 and Bol1-2 [ |
| (1) | 9/121 | Heracleum hemsleyanum Diels | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 10/126 | Heracleum rapula Franch. | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 11/150 | Libanotis iliensis (Lipsky) Korovin | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 12/153 | Libanotis seseloides (Fisch. & C. A. Mey. ex Turcz.) Turcz. | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (1) | 13/186 | ** Peucedanum praeruptorum Dunn | \ | Compact planting and seeding time [ |
\ | \ |
| (1) | 14/213 | ** Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk. | \ | Density of planted seedlings [ |
\ | Differentially expressed genes associated with BF during early flowering, flower bud differentiation, and late flowering [ |
| (2) | 15/14 | Angelica gigas Nakai | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (2) | 16/34 | ** Bupleurum chinense DC. | \ | Cut the flowers [ |
Temperature [ |
Flowering gene (BcSVP, BcPAF1, BcCO, and BcFT) [ |
| (2) | 17/67 | ** Bupleurum scorzonerifolium Willd. | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (2) | 18/80 | Changium smyrnioides H. Wolff | \ | Cut the flowers [ |
\ | \ |
| (2) | 19/81 | Chuanminshen violaceum M. L. Sheh & R. H. Shan | \ | \ | \ | \ |
| (2) | 20/113 | ** Glehnia littoralis F. Schmidt ex Miq. | \ | Cut the flowers [ |
\ | \ |
| (2) | 21/159 | ** Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. | Asexual reproduction and tissue culture [ |
Cut the bolted stem [ |
\ | Transcriptome original data by Illumina sequencing technology [ |
| (2) | 22/160 | ** Ligusticum jeholense Nakai et Kitag. | \ | Cut the flower [ |
\ | \ |
| (2) | 23/162 | ** Ligusticum sinense Oliv. | \ | Cut the flower [ |
\ | \ |
| (2) | 24/167 | ** Notopterygium franchetii H. de Boiss. | \ | Cut the flower [ |
\ | \ |
| (2) | 25/168 | ** Notopterygium incisum Ting ex H. T. Chang | \ | Cut the flower [ |
\ | \ |
Note: ** means the plant roots used as medicine reported in “Pharmacopoeia of the People’s Republic of China (2020)” [
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; Li, Min 1 ; Wang, Li 2 ; Li, Mengfei 1
; Wei, Jianhe 3 1 State Key Laboratory of Arid Land Crop Science, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China;
2 Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Agricultural Genomics Institute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Shenzhen 518120, China;
3 Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, China